Status of Archbasilica of St John Lateran

There are four papal major basilicas – all in Rome. The oldest and the highest-ranking of them all (and each of these buildings is very special!) is Archbasilica of St. John Lateran. No other Catholic church in the world is as important, even the St. Peter’s Basilica.

Archbasilica is the seat of the pope and the cathedral church of Rome. It has extraterritorial status from Italy as a property of the Holy See.

This is the oldest public church in Rome and the ecumenical mother church of Catholics.

The status of this magnificent building is testified both by its history and its embellishments and works of art.

History

Many structures in Rome have been built over the older buildings, often using parts of other structures. Thus it is very hard to find out – in which year the construction was started. Lateran Basilica is one of such cases – over the last 2000 years, there existed several structures, each influencing the next one.

The timeline of Lateran Basilica shows – this building is truly unique:

• Before common era: part of the current land plot that is now taken by Archbasilica belonged to the influential Laterani family and here stood Lateran Palace.
• 193: in the site of the present basilica in the times of Emperor Septimius Severus was established a Roman fort which was demolished around 312 – but the remnants of this ancient structure still are under the nave of the Archbasilica.
• 307: the Lateran Palace became the property of the Roman Emperor.
• Around 312: Emperor Constantine ordered to build a Christian Basilica at the palace – the first official church building in Rome and one of the oldest in the world. The basilica was dedicated to Christ the Savior.
• Around 313: land plot donated by Constantine to the Bishop of Rome – the future popes.
• 313-318 (324?): Bishop Sylvester I (now recognized as pope) built the basilica at Lateran Palace. The throne of the bishop – cathedra – became a symbol of episcopal authority. As the cathedra of the Bishop of Rome was placed inside the new basilica, it became a “cathedral”. Maybe this was not the first official cathedral in the world – there are several more in the Mediterranean area from these times – but it definitely was among the first ones.
• 410: Archbasilica was looted by the Visigoths.
• 455: Vandals invaded Rome and archbasilica was looted. Before this, the building was splendid and filled with valuables – it had a nickname “Golden Basilica” (Basilica Aurea).
• Around 460: Archbasilica was restored.
• 896: Archbasilica was almost totally destroyed by an earthquake. The new basilica was built in the same dimensions as the previous.
• 904-911: Archbasilica was rebuilt, rededicated to St. John the Baptist by Pope Sergius III.
• 1144: pope Lucius II dedicated the Archbasilica to John the Evangelist. Nevertheless Christ the Savior still was the primary patron of archbasilica.
• 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215, and 1512-1517: five ecumenical councils took place in the Archbasilica and Lateran Palace.
• 1308: fire destroyed the archbasilica and Lateran Palace.
• 1361: fire again destroyes both buildings. Pope was in Avignon in these times and both basilica and palace deteriorated although the pope sent financing for the maintenance and repairs.
• 1370-1378: the rebuilding of Archbasilica of St. John Lateran in its former design.
• 1376: papacy returnes to Rome. This part of Rome was sparsely populated and dangerous. Lateran Basilica and Palace were considered to be not suitable for the pope anymore – buildings were too dilapidated. Popes resided in other basilicas in Rome until the present Palace of the Vatican and Basilica of St. Peter was built in the 16th century.
• 1562-1567: the magnificent, coffered ceiling was made by Flaminio Boulanger. Now the ceiling is adorned with a huge amount of gold.
• 1585-1590: reconstruction of Lateran Basilica and Palace during the papacy of the ambitious Sixtus V. Works were made under the guidance of architect Domenico Fontana. The old Lateran Palace was demolished and a new palace constructed instead.
• 1646-1650: the interior of Basilica was renovated upon orders of Pope Innocent X in 1646-1650. These works were managed by the talented architect Francesco Borromini. Borromini though did not have too much artistic independence: he was asked to keep the coffered ceiling and the old, uneven floor and the apse of the basilica.
• 1718: the twelve niches created by Borromini were filled with Rococo style statues of the Apostles.
• 1733-1735: the magnificent, current facade of the archbasilica was built. This rebuilding was ordered by Pope Clement XII and the competition was fierce – more than 23 architects participated. Most designs were in the popular Baroque style but one excelled as something unusual and innovative: the design of Alessandro Galilei from the same family as Galileo Galilei and one of the first great Neo-Classicism architects. This design was selected as a winner and after the completion of works caused a scandal among the artistic circles in Rome and, at the same time was admired by a new generation of architects in France and Britain. Thus the facade of this ancient building got a very innovative design for its time, making the Lateran Basilica similar to a palace.
• World War II: Lateran Basilica and Palace served as a refuge for Jews and other persecuted people.

Design and relics

During its long history, Archbasilica has turned into a complex structure with several parts and adjoining buildings. Nevertheless, the main body has retained five aisles, just like in the 4th century.

Six popes are buried in the Lateran Basilica. At least ten more burials of popes were destroyed in the fires during the 14th century and their remnants were gathered and reburied.

Lateran Basilica contains several macabre relics: at the top of the altar is a reliquary that contains purported heads of St. Peter and St. Paul. The altar of the Holy Sacrament contains a supposed table of the Last Supper, a high altar – a piece of wood from St. Peter’s communion table. One more relic is a sample of Jesus’ blood. Well… just try to imagine if all of this is true. Weird indeed.

Among the countless embellishments and art values, Archbasilica contains fragments of Giotto’s fresco from 1300: but there are numerous other valuable artifacts of the past and wonderful monuments of art.

Lateran Palace adjoins the Archbasilica but close to it are several more important historical structures: Lateran Obelisk from Ancient Egypt, Lateran Baptistery, Scala Sancta (legendary stairs where Jesus stepped on his way to trial during Passion), and The Tribune.

Especially beautiful is the adjoining St. John Lateran’s Cloister. It was built in the early 13th century and utilized by Augustine priests who were in charge of liturgical ceremonies at the basilica. The cloister was designed by Vassalletto architects – father and son, who used the motives of ancient art. An interesting accent is Solomonic columns and columns twisted around each other – technically complex design.

References

1. Arcibasilica Papale San Giovanni in Laterano. Site last visited on 28th December 2018.
2. Roberto Piperno, Basilica di S. Giovanni in Laterano from “Rome in the Footsteps of an XVIIIth Century Traveller”. Site last visited on 28th December 2018.

Archbasilica of St. John Lateran is included in the following list:

History of Salute

Plague

Black Death – bubonic plague – reached Europe in 1348 and lingered for several centuries. Nobody knew when and how the epidemics will strike, but it did, again and again.

During the Thirty Years War the German and French troops carried the plague to Northern Italy and in 1629 epidemics started in Milan. In a few months, time plague reached also Venice. There was a quarantine island of San Clemente – all suspects of deadly infection had to stop there for a while before coming to Venice. But, somebody, reportedly, one carpenter, did not follow the strict rules and infection started in Venice City.

In 1630 – 1631 Venice lost some 30% of the population: bubonic plague killed some 46 thousand people. 48 thousand people died in other islands of the lagoon.

Now, when the measures of quarantine were too late, people had to rely on God’s mercy. There were organized prayers and processions to the churches which were devoted to the saints who were revered as guards against the epidemics. Only by the end of 1630, the epidemics started to recede. Since then plague epidemics have not returned to Venice, but we never know when this will happen again.

Tender for the new church

On October 22, 1630, Venetian Senate decreed that a new church has to be built. As the saints did not help, this church had to be dedicated to the Virgin Mary, Our Lady of Health (health in Italian – Salute). Around this time the epidemics started to disappear and many Venetians were in a religious frenzy – they had to act to express their gratitude and a deep wish never to experience the epidemics again.

This was not a new practice – five churches in Venice are devoted to salvation from the plague and Salute is the most recent one.

At first, there was selected a place. It had to be close to the main shrine of Venice – Saint Mark’s Basilica to enable the processions of gratitude. Eight potential locations were proposed and finally was chosen the best one. The new church had to be built near the tip of Punta Della Dogana, the customs house. Thus it would great visitors to the city, it would be at the Grand Canal and close to the St. Mark’s Square.

Earlier in this site was located church and monastery, that was granted by Venice to the Teutonic Knights in 1256 in gratitude for the help of knights in the war against Genoa. In 1592 these buildings were returned to the Patriarchate of Venice. These buildings were razed to the ground.

The tender on the architectural design aimed to select a structure with a flashy design at the same time keeping the expenses under control. Eleven submissions were received but most were not up to the requirements.

Happily, there was a clear leader: 26 years young and talented Baldassare Longhena. His proposal was unusual, flashy and at the same time, the expenses were calculated and acceptable. His proposal won with a large majority of votes.

New symbol of Venice

Salute was constructed in 1631 – 1687. Longhena died in 1682 when his work of life was nearing completion. The works were finished by his talented pupil Antonio Gaspari.

The gorgeous architecture and brilliant setting of the structure did something that seemed to be impossible: Salute became one of the symbols of Venice, this gorgeous city with hundreds of outstanding and legendary structures of world fame.

Venice has many traditions and one of the most important ones is Festa Della Madonna Della Salute. Each year on November 21 the city officials are parading from Saint Mark’s Basilica to the Salute in order to express their gratitude for getting rid of the plague. Between the churches is the Grand Canal. The people are crossing the water over a specially arranged pontoon bridge which is made of many barges.

Description of Santa Maria Della Salute

Giant rotunda

Longhena came up with a highly innovative and bold idea: to build an enormous rotunda. The whole church was just a rounded hall with a dome on top and smaller extensions in all directions.

The structure was built on one million wooden piles. Salute was constructed from Istrian stone – a dense, marble-like limestone as well as brick, which is covered with marble dust (marmorino).

The church is octagonal, with eight facades. The most impressive facade, naturally, is facing the Grand Canal. On the opposite side of it is the shrine with another, smaller dome and two bell-towers. 16 massive buttresses support the dome – each of the buttresses is adorned with expressive orecchioni – “big ear”.

The facade is decorated with many sculptures of saints and the Virgin Mary – also on the top of the tallest dome is a statue of the Virgin.

Santa Maria Della Salute church is one of the best examples of Baroque style and has inspired the construction of numerous similar churches in Europe and elsewhere from the marvelous San Simeon Piccolo at the other end of the Grand Canal to the giant Rotunda of Xewkija in Malta.

Interior

Salute consists of the central hall, entrance part, ambulatory in the far end, and six chapels.

The interior is somewhat more restricted but Salute contains many outstanding art values. Many works of art are referencing the Black Death. Some of the most outstanding works were moved here from other Venetian churches.

Art of Titian

Salute is deservedly proud of a very rich collection of one of the greatest painters of all time: Titian. These works were created one century before Salute, for other structures.

Several of Titian’s works come from the Santo Spirito church on Isola, the island with a cemetery between Venice and Murano. Similar to Salute, this church also was embellished during the plague in 1510 – 1512. Artworks from this church were moved to Salute in 1657 – 1659 when Augustinian monks were evicted from Santo Spirito. Later the church was abandoned and gradually turned into a ruin.

List of Titian’s works in Salute include:

• Saint Mark Enthroned with Saints Cosmas, Damian, Sebastian and Roch
• The Descent of the Holy Ghost
• Ceiling paintings: David and Goliath, Abraham and Isaac, Cain and Abel
• Eight tondi (large, round paintings) in the great sacristy
• “Pentecost” in the nave

Some other works of art

• “Marriage at Cana” – painting by Tintoretto at the great sacristy which includes his self-portrait;
• Altar paintings of Luca Giordano;
• The pavement of the church with 33 roses which symbolize the 33 years of Jesus life.

References

1. Jeff Cotton, Salute, The Churches of Venice. Site last visited on 26th December 2018.

Santa Maria della Salute, Venice is included in the following list:

Piazza dei Miracoli

The cathedral is the largest and oldest structure in Piazza dei Miracoli – a plaza that contains a world-famous ensemble of several magnificent structures, including the leaning belltower (the Leaning Tower of Pisa) and Pisa Baptistery. The structures are made from similar materials and have a similar expressive style. The Cathedral though was the first structure here and set the style for the next ones.

History

Pisa City

Today Pisa is a comparatively small city but it has a great history. The city was considered to be ancient already in Roman times. It was built at the sea but already in ancient times, sediments of the Arno river shifted the coastline away from the city. Now Pisa is almost 10 km from the sea.

Nevertheless, up to medieval times, Pisa was a major port city that at times managed to control most of the Western Mediterranean. It was a wealthy city, one of the main development centers in present-day Italy before the Renaissance and during it.

Architectural ambitions

In the 11th century, there was started the construction of a new cathedral for Pisa outside the city walls, in the area of the old city cemetery. The initial structure was not too ambitious – Pisa was not that wealthy at that time.

The possibilities changed to the best in 1063. The fleet of Pisa City together with Normans defeated Saracens in Palermo. There was rich loot, including six great enemy trading ships with rich merchandise.

Now Pisans changed their plans and decided to build something that the world has not seen – the largest and most beautiful cathedral ever. Somehow this happened in the same year when the bitter rivals of Pisa in Venice City started their own grand structure – the incredible Saint Mark’s Cathedral. In a way, Pisa in these times looked on Venice from above – after all, Pisa was an ancient, noble city while Venetians seemed to be a quick-get-rich city without accomplished taste.

And, indeed, even if Venice was incredibly rich, Pisa in its new architecture set a new standard of elegance.

Fusion of styles

The new cathedral was designed by Buscheto, a very talented and young architect, who worked on this project until 1110. His family might have Byzantine or even Armenian roots and this could influence his creative work. Buscheto decided to fuse the diverse styles of architecture and art known to him. Next architects continued the principles set by Buscheto. And, indeed, the cathedral shows the influence of the Islamic, Byzantine, and Lombardian styles. Some art historians see also the influence of Armenian architecture.

Now Pisa Cathedral is seen as one of the best examples of Romanesque architecture – a local trend of this style which sometimes is called also Pisan Romanesque style. The work of Buscheto inspired the next generations of architects in the region.

Timeline of Pisa Cathedral

• 1063 – started the construction of the present cathedral. Shortly before here was started cathedral of another design but the project was replaced with the currently visible result;
• 1092 – the main structure is completed. Almost for one century, Pisa Cathedral was the largest church in Europe;
• 1118 – the cathedral is consecrated by Pope Gelasius II who himself was from an influential family originating from Pisa;
• Around 1140 – the cathedral is largely extended and the current beautiful facade is built;
• 1153 – construction of the baptistery starts next to the cathedral. Now, this is the largest and, possibly, the most beautiful baptistery in Italy;
• 1156 – additional walls built to incorporate the new cathedral and buildings around it;
• 1173 – construction of Pisa Tower – a campanile to the cathedral – starts. Some five years later it turns out that the ground does not hold the tower. Amazingly this mishap turns into success – now everyone knows about the Pisa architectural ensemble due to the leaning tower;
• 1302 – 1310 – amazing work of art – the stone pulpit – is created by Giovanni Pisano;
• 1595 – cathedral burns in the fire and most of its medieval art values are lost forever. Step by step new art values are created since then;
• Early 18th century – most of the beautiful frescoes inside the cathedral are created;
• 1926 – the beautiful pulpit is rediscovered (it was packed away during an earlier reconstruction) and set up in the cathedral again.

Description

Exterior

The original design of the cathedral by Buscheto was similar to a Greek cross with an equal length of arms. Nevertheless, the large extension of the cathedral in the 12th century changed this – now the floorplan of the cathedral resembles a Latin cross with one extended arm.

The cathedral emanates the somewhat grave grandeur of the more ancient, first Christian basilicas. At the same time, this was an absolutely modern and innovative structure at its time of construction. Very impressive is the facade with arcades on four levels and enormous, blind arches at the ground level.

The leaning tower shows that the local ground cannot hold heavy structures. Also, the cathedral is sinking into the ground and this is seen by discrepancies between different parts of the structure, which were built at different times.

Interior

Interior is somewhat unusual for Christian churches as it has been influenced by Moorish architecture. Here have been used lancet arches typical for many mosques and alternating black and white marble. Moorish, Islamic influence shows also in the exterior: the dome of the cathedral is not round but elliptical.

The interior has an impressive, tall central nave and four side aisles – two on each side. The wooden, coffered ceiling is embellished with gold but the pavement is made in the cosmati technique.

Church houses remnants of Saint Rainerius – patron saint of Pisa. This man lived in the 12th century and during his youth was a traveling musician. Later he became a devout Christian and a famous preacher, reportedly with miraculous powers.

There is a story (most likely not true) that Galileo formulated his theory about the movement of a pendulum when looking at the swinging of the incense lamp in the Cathedral.

Some of the most interesting works of art here are:

• Saint Rainerius bronze doors with some of the first Italian style bronze bas-reliefs (1180);
• The mosaic “Christ enthroned between the Virgin and Saint John” in the apse. Most of it is made by Francesco da Pisa, but the face of Saint John here is painted by Cimabue in 1302. This was the only fragment that survived the fire of 1595, thus saving the last work of this outstanding painter;
• Pulpit, made by Giovanni Pisano in 1302 – 1310. Currently, the visible pulpit is a replica, but the original also has been preserved. This is a true masterpiece of Gothic sculpture, with many innovations in the art in order to make the sculptural work as life-like as possible;
• 68 massive columns inside: these columns were brought from Sardinia. This island was under the rule of Pisa in these times.

References

1. Giuliano Valdes. Art and History of Pisa. 1998. ISBN-10: 888029024X.

Pisa Cathedral is included in the following list:

History

Saint Anthony

Saint Anthony of Padua (1195 – 1231) was a Portuguese priest, a passionate and merciful man, a disciple of Saint Francis of Assisi. He traveled through present-day France and Italy and his sermons were captivating and attracted many people.

Saint Anthony arrived in Padua in 1226 and founded a convent there in 1229.

An unexpected tragedy happened in 1231 when he, a young, talented, and promising man became ill and died due to food poisoning with fungus. There are legends about the lament in Padua when people learned about his death.

Saint Anthony was canonized less than one year after his death – unusual speed for the Catholic church. Now he is recognized as a patron of lost things. He was exhumed in 1263 – his body was decomposed but there was a miracle – the tongue of the saint was incorrupt as if celebrating the extraordinary oratory skills of Saint Anthony.

Every year on June 13th in the streets of Padua takes place the Procession of the Relics.

The construction of a giant church

Saint Anthony, according to his will, was buried in the small church of Santa Maria Mater Domini which was built in the late 12th century. This was a will of a modest man.

The church took into account his will but did not follow his spirit of humility. Soon after his death in 1232 there was started construction of one of the largest church buildings in the world. The ancient church was incorporated in the new building and now forms one of its chapels – Chapel of the Dark Madonna.

The giant structure was completed in 1310, although there have been multiple extensions and rebuildings in later times, for the most part at the end of the 14th century – middle of the 15th century.

Design

Exterior

The most impressive view of the cathedral opens from the northwest. To the surprised visitor opens a view of a tall and even somewhat chaotic structure with a multitude of diverse, seemingly incompatible details.

The structure represents a mix of Byzantine and Romanesque styles with some influence of the Gothic style. The church has an enormous, Romanesque central hall with side aisles. Above the hall rise eight Byzantine domes similar to the domes in Saint Mark’s Basilica in the nearby Venice.

The brick facade also has features of two styles – the central section and its side extensions are in Romanesque style and in front of it arcaded balcony and four large recesses in Gothic style.

As if this is not enough, Basilica has two tall and several smaller towers which somewhat resemble minarets.

To the north-west, in front of Basilica stands also an outstanding monument – the famous condottiero (military leader) Gattamelata on a horse, shaped by Donatello.

Interior

Basilica has many outstanding art values, including sculptures by Donatello and fresco by Giotto. Here are several important images of Madonna, weird and somewhat macabre relics are the chin and tongue of St. Anthony in the main hall of Basilica.

There are several chapels:

• Chapel of Saint Anthony contains the body of Saint Anthony in a tomb called Arca;
• Treasury Chapel is shaped in Baroque style and contains the relics of the saint;
• The Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament houses the tomb of Gattamelata and his son Giannantonio;
• Especially wonderful is the Chapel of St.James, which was shaped in Gothic style in the 1370ies. It is adorned with frescoes by Altichiero da Zevio, one of the great Gothic painters. Frescoes show the Stories of St.James, but the centerpiece – Crucifixion – is his masterpiece.

References

1. Saint Anthony of Padua. Accessed in the 19th December 2018
2. Webcamera

Basilica of Saint Anthony of Padua is included in the following list:

History of St Mark’s Basilica

Beginnings of the magnificent Venice City

The history of St Mark’s Basilica started when Venice was one of the last outposts of the Byzantine Empire surrounded by the Carolingian Empire. The spirited grandee Agnello Participazio organized the defense of Venice against the Lombardian forces and was elected as the tenth doge of Venice in 811.

Participazio moved the capital of Venice from the present-day Malamocco on Lido island to Rialto in the center of present-day Venice – this island was easier to protect against the enemy forces. The development of present-day Venice started.

Story of Saint Mark

It seems, Saint Mark the Evangelist, contemporary of Jesus Christ and, possibly, the boy who lived in the house with Cenacle – the house where the Last Supper took place, during his life did not have anything to do with Venice or even present-day Italy. This learned man was sent by Jesus to spread his teachings in Judea and later wrote the Gospel of Mark – part of the present-day Bible. He founded the Christian Church in Africa, the Coptic Orthodox Church, and served as the first bishop of Alexandria.

He died as a martyr in 68 AD and his remains were in Alexandria, guarded by Coptic monks. Meanwhile Venice – the rising center of power – needed everything. It became richer but it needed influence over the minds.

Then, reportedly, happened the following:

The next doge Giustiniano Participazia – son of Agnello Participazio – approved a daring quest. Two Venetian merchants, Buono di Malamocco and Rustico di Torcello, were sent to a mission to Alexandria. They bribed the guards and stole the remnants of Saint Mark, hiding them among the pork. They brought it to Venice on January 31 828.

There was a need to have a representative shrine to hold these invaluable relics. Thus Giustiniano ordered to build a chapel dedicated to Saint Mark.

Timeline

• 828 – Doge of Venice orders to build his chapel next to the new Doge’s Palace.
• 832 – first chapel completed.
• 830ies – the first St. Mark’s Campanile – bell tower – constructed.
• 976 – first chapel burned down during a rebellion.
• 978 – next chapel built.
• 1063 – 1094 – the present cathedral is built and consecrated.
• 1106 – remnants of a man, supposedly, the body of Saint Mark – were discovered in a pillar of the church.
• 1204 – after the siege and loot of Constantinople Venetians bring to Basilica many outstanding values of art.
• First half of the 13th century – the present-day facade and the narthex constructed, five domes rebuilt in their present form. Most of the mosaics completed inside.
• 13th century – the private Doge’s chapel gradually becomes a state church. St Mark’s Basilica becomes the place where the grand ceremonies of the Republic of Venice take place.
• 13th – 15th century – Deceased doges are buried inside the church until the space runs out.
• 13th – 19th century – Basilica becomes more and more opulent, there are added more and more embellishments, gold, jewels, works of art. The facade is covered with marble and intricate carvings.
• 1797, 1807 – end of the Venetian Republic. Upon the order of Napoleon Basilica becomes the seat of the Patriarch of Venice, archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Venice.

Design

St. Mark’s Basilica has bold and unusual planning – there are few buildings like it. It has a plan of a Greek cross (e.g. cross with equal length of arms) and has five large domes, which are made of wood and covered with 2-3 millimeters thick sheet of lead. The building is 76.5 m long and 62.5 m wide.

The church incorporates also a low tower which is believed to be a part of the original Doge’s Palace. Now it houses St. Mark’s Treasure.

Facade

The main facade has five enormous portals rising tall above the countless tourists in Piazza San Marco. Portals have round arches with bronze-fashioned doors. The sumptuous facade is adorned with mosaics depicting the scenes from the Life of Christ as well as the history of the relics of Saint Mark.

The roofline is adorned with many sculptures: the statue of Saint Mark stands in the center. Below this statue is a relief of a winged lion – the symbol of this saint as well as the symbol of Venice.

Triumphal Quadriga

Above the main entrance are located replicas of one more, very special treasure of art – the Horses of Saint Mark (Triumphal Quadriga). The original horses are inside the church now.

Quadriga, most likely, was made in Roman times. These copper horses were brought to Venice after the sack of Constantinople in 1204. Collars of horses hide cuts – their heads were severed in order to make possible their transport.

Four Tetrarchs

One more loot from Constantinople is the porphyry sculpture of the Four Tetrarchs in the corner of the facade. It also is made in the times of Ancient Rome, around 300 AD, and shows the four rulers of the Roman Empire. This is an outstanding work of art – an early predecessor of medieval art.

Interior

The most stunning feature of the interior is the golden mosaics which cover some 8000 m². As a result, the interior shimmers and sparkles.

The oldest part is on the main porch and could be made around 1070. This early mosaic represents Byzantine art but by 1130 the mosaics were made already in a local, Italian style.

The interior was completed around the 1290ies. Later, when restorations were needed, the designs were made by many prominent artists – Paolo Uccello, Paolo Veronese, Titian, Jacopo Tintoretto, and others.

Unique work of Byzantine art is the high altar retable – Pala d’Oro. It is made of gold and more than 2000 precious stones and pearls. Originally made in 976 and expanded around 1105. In 1345 it was further expanded with a Gothic-style frame by the goldsmith Giovanni Paolo Bonesegna.

Inside the Basilica are numerous other works of art of international importance, many coming from exotic lands.

St Mark’s Basilica had an influence on music as well – here evolved Venetian polychoral style: several choirs were alternately singing in different places of the church. This music in the late 16th century was the precursor of the Baroque style in music.

This magnificent structure is a true paradise for lovers of art history – there are thousands of details to explore and contemplate.

References

1. Basilica di San Marco. Accessed in the 17th December 2018

St Mark’s Basilica is included in the following list:

The historical hilltop city of Siena was established by Etruscans for several centuries BC. The present name of the city – Saena Julia – was mentioned in Roman writings in the 1st century AD.

Located at a safe distance from the pirate-infested sea, Siena became an important trade post on the way to Rome. It was one of the most important Italian city-states in the 11th – 16th century and its main competitor and the enemy was Florence.

The prosperous city and, possibly, the first banking center in the world was one of the most important centers of arts in Italy in the 13th – 14th century. The great Siennese artists are less known today, but no less distinguished than the better-known great Florentine artists.

Siena has preserved nearly intact medieval and Renaissance architecture up to this day and is one of the most interesting medieval cities in Europe.

The concept of the world’s largest cathedral

Symbol of the grand ambitions of Siennese is a cathedral of the city – planned as the largest cathedral in the world.

Cathedral was built at the highest point of the city, on the site of an earlier cathedral. It is not known when the first church was built here, but it is known that in the 9th century AD there was a church and bishop’s palace. In 1058 an important event took place here – pope Nicholas II was elected.

Preparations for the construction of a new cathedral of Siena were started in 1196. It was decided to start the construction with the north-south oriented transept and to add the main part afterward.

Construction of the present cathedral

This north-south transept was basically constructed in 1229 – 1263 – and constitutes Siena Cathedral up to this day.

Transport of construction material, including the black and white marble, started in 1226.

Both the exterior and interior of the cathedral have outstanding ornamentation – alternating stripes of this white and nearly black-greenish marble. The facade is accented with red marble.

It is considered that black and white colors symbolize the black and white horses of the legendary founders of the city – Senius and Aschius.

Next to the cathedral in 1313 was built a nearly 77 m tall belltower – a stunning structure in Romanesque style.

In 1339 were started further works – construction of the giant main body of the cathedral, which would increase the size of the cathedral more than twice and make it larger than any other cathedral in the world.

From the very beginning these works were performed in poor quality and were stopped by the Black Death in 1348.

Floor of the unfinished cathedral was made – and is used as a parking lot and floor of the museum.

Architecture and art treasures

Siena Cathedral is built in Tuscany Romanesque style, with many details and ornamentation in Gothic style. This beautiful building in the plan has a form of a Latin cross, it has a dome and a tall bell tower.

Dome is topped with a gilded lantern, which was made by Gian Lorenzo Bernini and resembles the Sun.

Below the choir and below the current soil level is located the entrance to the earlier church – the walls there contain frescoes from the late 13th century which depict scenes from the Old Testament.

One of the oldest works of art in the cathedral is the beautiful pulpit, which was carved by Nicolà Pisano in 1265 – 1268.

The list of art values in Siena Cathedral is very long – here are located works of Donatelli, Bernini, Michelangelo, Martini, and numerous great Siennese artists.

Description of all art values in Siena Cathedral would amount to a thick book. Here are noted just a few:

Facades

Siena Cathedral has some of the most stunning facades of any structure in the world. Most beautiful is the West facade – the main entrance to the cathedral with three portals.

Works at this facade started sometime around 1284 and were led by Giovanni Pisano until 1296. Works were continued by Camino de Crescentino. In 1317 works were stopped and more attention was paid to the East facade. West facade most likely was completed in the 1360s – 1370s, for the most part using the initial design of Pisano. Final works were overseen by Giovanni de Cecco, who made the facade even more ornate.

Change of masters is seen in the design of the facade. Thus – although in Gothic architecture it is common to have vertically continuous elements, the facade of Siena Cathedral shows vertical discontinuities.

Most of the statues seen in the present-day facade are copies of the original ones. The original statues are kept in Museo dell’Opera del Duomo.

The fascinating mosaics on the three gables of the cathedral were produced in Venice in 1878.

The ornate bronze door replaced the wooden door in 1946.

Stained glass

The black and white stripes inside the cathedral look even more impressive. Much effect is added by the stained glass windows.

Especially valuable are the round stained glass windows in facades. The stained glass window in the choir is from 1288 – one of the oldest stained glass windows in Italy. The large stained glass window in the facade is younger – from 1549.

Floor

The marble mosaic floor is one of the most beautiful pavements in Italy, made in the 14th – 16th centuries. This grand artwork takes the whole area of the cathedral and consists of 56 diverse panels, depicting diverse themes, made with different techniques.

for the most part of the year the pavement is covered in order to preserve it.

Piccolomini library

Adjoining the cathedral is Piccolomini library where is stored a rich collection of illuminated choir books. The library is ornamented with stunning, colorful frescoes by Pinturicchio. Piccolomini library was constructed in 1492, ornamented with paintings in 1502 – 1507, and devoted to Pope Pius II, who came from Siena.

Baptistry of San Giovanni

The beautiful baptistry of San Giovanni was built in Gothic style in 1316 – 1325. Its interior is stunning – it is adorned with frescoes that were made by Vecchietta and other painters in 1447 – 1450.

Siena Cathedral of Santa Maria is included in the following list:

Assisi

Like many medieval towns of Italy, the history of Assisi started thousands of years ago. This well-fortified town developed on the slopes of Asio hill, and, possibly was started by Umbrians, taken over by Etruscans, then Romans. Fortification walls and buildings were constructed mostly of local granite.

Today Assisi is a charming, interesting town, rich with medieval and Renaissance architecture and artworks, it has been a place of key importance for the development of European art.

As one approaches the town, there opens a view on magnificent basilica. It is devoted to the best known son of Assisi – Giovanni Francesco di Bernardone, better known as Saint Francis of Assisi.

St. Francis of Assisi

The life and character of Francis of Assisi often is compared to the life of Christ and many of his followers believed that he is the second Christ.

At his youth Francis led a life of rich, spoiled offspring of a wealthy family. But, while participating in the war, he had a vision, which changed his life. Francis deliberately started to live in poverty, he taught peace, tolerance, and love for everything that has been created by God, including animals and plants.

Francis has multiple followers and sometimes around 1210 they established a new order – Franciscan Order, which later became one of the most influential Christian orders. In a way Christianity was reborn through his efforts, religion regained its ideals and these ideals have been outstanding up to this day.

This great man died in 1226 and soon after, in 1228 was pronounced a saint by his friend, pope Gregory IX.

Construction of Assisi Basilica

It was clear that the Franciscan order needed a convent and church. Franciscans wanted also to commemorate their inspirer by building a new church in Assisi – the city where he was born and buried.

Pope Gregory IX laid the cornerstone of the mother church of the Order of Friars Minor (one of three Franciscan orders) on July 17, 1228, the next day after the canonization of St. Francis. Construction was started in the site of the initial burial of St. Francis, on cliffside.

St. Francis wanted to be similar to Jesus, who was killed and buried outside Jerusalem, like a criminal. Francis was buried outside the city walls, in Collo d’Inferno – Hill of Hell. This was the place, where gallows were placed and criminals put to death.

Gregory IX though saw the future of Franciscans in a different way and wanted to show his support to this order through construction of a splendid church.

Construction was led by Elias of Cortona – one of the earliest followers to St.Francis. Elias of Cortona did his work with excellence and created a magnificent, ornate basilica, which was completed in 1253 – surprisingly soon, if compared to other major churches of Europe. In many ways it defined the local, Italian adaptation of Gothic style in architecture and art.

In 1239 there was built a Romanesque belltower next to the church.

Splendour or poverty?

The construction of the mother church of Franciscans demonstrated the split between the followers of St. Francis – many saw that construction of such an expensive and pompous church contradicts the life and gospels of St. Francis.

This split became a reality – Franciscan Order divided. Proponents of strict rules and poverty were named zelanti and Fraticelli and were persecuted by the Church in the coming centuries.

Nevertheless this splendid building in some way defined the ruling tendency in the Franciscan Order in coming centuries. Franciscan Order became politically influential, many Franciscan churches now belong to most ornate structures worldwide (e.g. Church and Convent of San Francisco in Quito, Ecuador or Igreja de São Francisco in Porto, Portugal).

Later history of Assisi Basilica

Already in 1230 the body of St. Francis returned from its temporary place of burial (Basilica of Saint Clare of Assisi) to the basilica. Since then it became one of the most important Christian pilgrimage sites in Italy.

In 1288 the church got the status of Papal Church. Later – in 1474 – impressive colonnades were built around the square. Church in the 15th century was used as a summer residence of the popes.

Much later – in 1818 – the remnants of St. Francis were rediscovered below the floor of Assisi Basilica and some decades later there was built a crypt. Now the burial place of the saint can be visited.

Another great man in the history of Christianity – pope John Paul II – brought together 160 religious leaders of different world religions in the basilica in 1986, in the World Day of Prayer of Peace. This happened once again in 2002 when 200 religious leaders participated.

Tragedy happened in 1997 – earthquakes killed two Franciscan friars and two construction specialists inside the Assisi Basilica, the structure was heavily damaged and valuable frescoes by Giotto were lost. Some years later the basilica was renovated.

Two churches in one basilica

Basilica has an interesting peculiarity – it consists of two floors – Lower Church and Upper Church. Both have cruciform plans and each of them was consecrated as a separate church.

Lower Church and the grand monastery (Sacro Convento) at it basically were complete by 1239. Upper Basilica was constructed later – it was started after 1239 and completed in 1253 when both churches were consecrated by Pope Innocent IV.

Both Upper and Lower Churches are decorated with frescoes by many famous painters, including Cimabue, Giotto, Simone Martini, Pietro Lorenzetti, possibly Pietro Cavallini. These frescoes make this basilica an outstanding monument of Italian art.

Lower Church

This part of Assisi Basilica was designed in the earlier – Romanesque style, with semicircular cross-vaults and barrel vaults. The entrance portal though is shaped in Gothic style, with gorgeous rose window above it. Lower Church contains the crypt of St. Francis.

Here are the oldest frescoes in the basilica, made by unknown artist. On the right side are five frescoes depicting the Passion of Christ and on the left side – five scenes from the life of St.Francis. Thus Franciscans in a way interpreted St.Francis as a second Christ.

Upper Church

Upper Church has white-washed brick facade and Gothic doorway and Romanesque rose window above it. Its architecture has more Gothic forms than the architecture of Lower Church. Especially impressive are the beautiful Gothic windows with stained glass – some of the best examples of Italian glasswork from the 13th century.

The interior of the Upper Church is important monument of early Gothic art and architecture. Gorgeous is the ceiling, which is adorned with sky color frescoes with golden stars.

Assisi Basilica is included in the following list:

Florence

City – miracle of medieval Italy

Florence – former Roman military camp – today is seen as a miracle of medieval Italy, an incredibly prosperous city that provided work and fame to anyone who had skills, imagination, and vigors. City and its vicinity increased their wealth and prosperity step by step, starting from the 7th – 9th century AD. Starting from the 11th century city was powerful and ambitious enough to develop its first major construction projects meant for show-off.

As time went by, Florence became more influential and its oligarchic rulers were patronizing the arts. The public loved the show-off and the fact that Florence was outclassing other Italian cities. But artists in Florence created works that were a lot more than shallow pomp.

City of hungry artists

It is trendy to speak about creative cities today – about cities with huge creative potential, cities where people think, plan and act with imagination. Often such cities tend to be filled with hordes of artists, some successful but most – living in poverty and step by step nearing full disillusionment.

Florence did have all of this in medieval and Renaissance times. As Giorgio Vasari (first modern art historian – also Florentine innovation!) described it, artists in Florence were in constant hunger, always in fierce fights (frequently – real fights) for the next order. We know some hundreds of the most successful artists, but we know nothing about the many thousands who did not achieve much.

Building of Florence Cathedral

New cathedral over the old one

At the end of the 13th century the governors of Florence were increasingly dissatisfied with the fact that, contrary to its competitors (Pisa, Genoa, Lucca, Siena, and others), the city did not have a proper cathedral.

The old Florence cathedral – Santa Reparata – was built in the early 5th century AD. This old building was crumbling and became too small for the fast-growing city.

It was decided to build the new cathedral on the site of the old one. In fact, Santa Reparata was included in the new building, the new Florence Cathedral was built over it, and then – in 1375 – the old cathedral was demolished.

Build history

The build history of Florence Cathedral is as follows:

• 1294 – construction of the cathedral was approved, design of the great Arnolfo di Cambio was selected. Cathedral was designed in Italian Gothic style, as a basilica with three naves and an enormous, octagonal dome. Di Cambio planned to build a dome of unseen, gargantuan size – but even this was increased in later times.
• September 9, 1296 – laid foundation stone.
• 1296 – around 1310 – construction under the guidance of di Cambio.
• Around 1310 – 1331 – after the death of di Cambio works slowed down.
• 1331 – remains of Saint Zenobius were found in the old Florence Cathedral. St. Zenobius was the first bishop of Florence (337 – 417). He reportedly resurrected several dead people, including a child overrun by a cart. This find is seen as a miracle and serves as an impetus to renew the active construction of the cathedral.
• 1334 – 1337 – the great Giotto di Bondone was appointed to oversee the construction works. Works were continued according to the original design of di Cambio. Giotto designed and built the beautiful Campanile next to the cathedral.
• 1337 – 1348 – after the death of Giotto his assistant Andrea Pisano took over the works. Giovanni di Lapo Ghini took over the lead for a while in 1344.
• 1348 – Black Death comes to Florence, and half of the people in the city die. Pisano dies, presumably from the plague. Works were stopped and the death of many artists and their patrons slowed down the development of arts in Italy. Many works of art following the epidemy show apocalyptic themes, and grotesque figures.

• 

  1349 (1351) – 1364 – construction was resumed, led by Francesco Talenti. He completed the campanile, and started redesigning to make the Florence Cathedral larger – but finally was dismissed after much criticism and complaints. The lower part of the facade was built.

• 1364 – 1370 – Giovanni di Lapo Ghini took over the works and expanded the size of the planned dome from 36 to 41 m.
• 1367 – Neri di Fioravante proposed interesting structural innovations which mark the departure from Gothic style to a new thinking in architecture – the future Renaissance style. He proposed a design that allowed him to avoid the use of buttresses – traditional detail in Gothic architecture. Italian architects disliked buttresses and the use of this architectural detail was forbidden in Florence. Fioravante and his colleagues proposed to build a dome of similar size to the dome of the Pantheon in Rome. Knowledge about the technology for its construction was lost – but they were confident that sooner or later it will be found.
• 1380 – the nave of the cathedral was built after the removal of the old Santa Reparata cathedral.
• 1419 – a competition was announced to build the dome of Florence Cathedral. Two engineers entered the competition – Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi, long time rivals. Brunelleschi won. Giorgio Vasari wrote that one of the tasks for competing architects was – to make an egg stand vertically on a marble plate. Brunelleschi simply hit one end of the egg – and left it standing on the marble plate.
• 1420 – 1436 – construction of the dome by Brunelleschi. He used a multitude of brilliant innovations, overcoming diverse problems and achieving new heights in structural engineering, which were not surpassed for centuries to come.
• March 25, 1436 – cathedral is consecrated.
• 1436 – 1469 – large lantern with the copper ball on the top of the dome was built, already after the death of Brunelleschi in 1446. It is possible that the young Leonardo da Vinci was working at it as an apprentice. Da Vinci was much impressed by the machine drawings of Brunelleschi and made some outlines to remember these designs.
• 1568 – 1579 – the interior of the dome was covered with one of the largest frescoes in the world.
• 1587 – 1588 – the unfinished facade of the cathedral was removed as totally outmoded. Competitions for new designs failed and cathedrals stood bare until the 19th century.
• 1864 – 1887 – a new competition for the construction of the facade was held. Neo-Gothic design of Emilio de Fabris won and works were finished after his death by Luigi del Moro.

Design of Florence Cathedral

Cathedral in the plan has a form of Latin cross. It is 153 m long and 90 m wide at the crossing.

Florence Cathedral is the largest building in medieval Europe, it can contain up to 30 000 people. It pushed the limits of construction technologies and for several centuries it was unsurpassed in many aspects.

This building was so ambitious that a new approach to architecture had to be invented – it marked the departure from the Gothic style and the beginnings of Renaissance architecture.

Structurally it belongs to the Gothic style except for the dome which is a forerunner of the Renaissance style.

The dome

The most surprising part of the Florence Cathedral is its dome. It looks oversized if compared to the rest of the cathedral and it was the largest dome in the world until 1881, with a diameter of 45.52 m and a height – of 90 m. This remains the largest masonry dome in the world up to this day.

Arnolfo di Cambio already in 1294 planned that the cathedral will have a giant dome – but, as the time went on and the ambitions increased, the dome became larger and larger – at least in plans.

It was clear that the dome should not have buttresses – a forbidden architectural detail in Florence. It was also not possible to build scaffolding for the structure – the vicinities of Florence did not have that much wood. Such scaffolding would be very complex to build and it would need to stand for a long time – e.g. it would be almost like another giant building.

Pantheon in Rome (43.4 m diameter) was built in 128 AD from concrete – but the knowledge to build such structures was lost.

It seems, people in Florence knew that a genius will come and invent solutions – and it happened. They had to wait for more than one century until Filippo Brunelleschi invented daring and very innovative technologies which enabled this construction.

Brunelleschi (1377 – 1446) worked mostly in Florence, learned as a goldsmith, but was very skilled at mechanics, and engineering – and became one of the most renowned structural engineers and architects of all times.

Brunelleschi used bricks for the dome – comparatively light material which allows the creation of different forms. Dome is octagonal, thus adding more complexity to the design – also the chains (hoops) around the dome needed to have an octagonal form in order not to squeeze the corners of the octagon. No support structures were used – the dome held itself, workers, and devices for the construction.

More than 4 million bricks were used with a total weight of some 37,000 tons. Brunelleschi invented a hoist to raise heavy weights – and patented his invention. This was the first patent of modern times.

Dome was built with an opening in the center for lighting. A lantern was built over the opening.

Frescoe in the dome

Brunelleschi proposed to cover the interior of the dome with gold – to make the most of the light coming in through the lantern.

This was not implemented, and the dome now is covered with the 3,600 m ² large representation of the Last Judgement. This fresco was started by Giorgio Vasari (making true fresco on wet plaster) and Frederico Zuccari (working on dry plaster) in 1568 and works lasted until 1579. The artistic quality of these giant frescoes is uneven – different artists were working on different parts of it.

It is possible that this is one of the largest frescoes in the world, possibly surpassed by the frescoes in Sigiriya, Sri Lanka.

Exterior, facade

The polychrome exterior of Florence Cathedral is unusual for such giant buildings. Many sorts of marble have been used for it, mainly white marble from Carrara, green – from Prato and red – from Siena.

Facade decoration was designed to create a uniform ensemble with the existing facades of Baptistery and Giotto’s Campanile – two outstanding buildings next to the cathedral, forming a single ensemble.

Interior

If compared to the exterior, the interior of the Florence Cathedral seems almost austere. Nevertheless here are located important works of art.

Very valuable are 44 stained glass windows from the 14th and 15th centuries, made by such masters as Donatello, Lorenzo Ghiberti, Paolo Uccello, and Andrea del Castagno.

Interesting artworks are the almost monochrome frescoes "Funerary Monument to Sir John Hawkwood" (Paolo Uccello, 1436) and "Equestrian statue of Niccolò da Tolentino" (Andrea del Castagno, 1456) – both resemble the colors of marble stone.

Should be mentioned also the clock which shows Italian time – 24 hours, with the day ending at the sunset. Few such clocks have been preserved.

References

1. Il Duomo di Firence – Cattedrale di S. Maria del Fiore – the official website. Accessed on the 22nd of July 2012
2. Opera di Santa Maria Del Fiore, Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore. Accessed on the 23rd July 2018

Florence Cathedral is included in the following list:

Orvieto

One of the most spectacular towns in Central Italy is Orvieto. This town is built on a volcanic plug which rises 150 – 200 m above the surroundings.

Settlement on the top of this cliff has existed for millennia. Orvieto was one of the major centers of Etruscan civilizations, a Roman town and – thanks to its defensible position – an important city of Medieval Italy.

Many interesting buildings have been built in Orvieto throughout the centuries and preserved up to this day. Very exciting is the system of underground passages, with escape tunnels starting in many houses in the city and leading far out of the city.

Cathedral

Build history

Orvieto has a special place in the history of the papacy – five popes left Rome and resided in Orvieto, mostly in the time period from 1261 to 1304. This well-fortified city provided safety away from the wild clashes in Rome. And – yes, the papacy was an important factor helping to get a magnificent cathedral in Orvieto.

Formal reason for the construction of the new, grand cathedral though was a wish to create a due home for an interesting relic – the Corporal of Bolsena.

This small consecrated oblate once, reportedly in 1263, started to bleed on a cloth, which was held by a priest, who had doubts about transubstantiation. This stained cloth has been preserved in Cathedral up to this day. Spots on the cloth show a profile similar to that of Jesus Christ – one more aspect of this miracle. One of the greatest yearly festivities in Orvieto is a day when this cloth is paraded around the town.

Initially it was planned to build a large structure in Romanesque style. Flagstone was laid by Pope Nicholas IV, first chief-mason was Fra Bevignate di Perugia, using a Romanesque design, which envisaged a structure with a nave and two side aisles. Some art historians presume that Arnolfo di Cambio inspired the design of the cathedral.

Soon after the start of the construction Giovanni di Uguccione became chief-mason. He modernized the design to a Gothic style in a form which today is classified as Italian Gothic.

Lorenzo Maitani, an architect from Siena, became chief-engineer in 1309. He redesigned the building in order to improve its structural integrity and to a large extent created the cathedral in its present form. This variety of Gothic style is sometimes called – Siennese Gothic, as besides Orvieto similar gorgeous building is Siena Cathedral. It is considered that Maitano used also principles of the golden ratio in the design.

Orvieto was not a major centre in arts – thus most of the works were done by engineers from Siena and Florence – and simultaneously with the construction of world-class cathedrals in Siena and Florence.

Maitani died in 1330 when most of the structural works were complete, his sons continued the work. Andrea Pisano was appointed as chief-mason in 1347, then in 1359 – Andrea di Cione (Orcagna). The spectacular golden mosaics of the facade and the rose window most likely is his work.

Works of smaller scale continued after 1360 – facade got details in Renaissance style in 1451 – 1456 (Antonio Federighi), work at the facade continued up to the early 17th century.

Exterior

Cathedral is built in the highest spot of Orvieto cliff and view towards this beautiful building opens from many streets in the city.

In spite of its rather complex build history Orvieto Cathedral has amazing compositional unity. The beauty and ornamentation of this building are hard to surpass. In its form, this cathedral belongs to the Romanesque style, but the ornamentation of the facade and art values inside represent the Gothic style.

Most surprising is the monumental facade which is adorned with intricate golden mosaics. It is seen as one of the masterpieces of European architecture and art in the Late Middle Ages. Mosaics mostly have been replaced with newer ones in later reconstructions of the 17th – 19th centuries – but these reconstructions have been made in very high quality.

Lower part of the facade, understandably, is not adorned with gold – but nevertheless it is formed from bas reliefs of exceptionally high quality, depicting scenes from the Old and New Testament, history of man in the past and future.

Golden mosaics further up on the facade show mainly scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary.

The large rose window in the facade is another sumptuously ornamented detail – it was created by Orcagna between 1354 and 1380. In the center of the window is sculpted head of Jesus Christ.

Latest details in the facade are three bronze doors, made in 1970 by Sicilian sculptor Emilio Greco – also with rich ornamentation.

Side walls of the cathedral are much less ornate – they are faced with alternating layers of white travertine and dark basalt.

Interior

After seeing the grand facade the visitor would not be disappointed to see the interior – it is not less ornamented, if not the opposite.

The cathedral has been designed to be spacious, with massive columns, which, like the exterior walls, are adorned with white and dark lines.

Much of the surfaces in the cathedral are covered with beautiful frescoes. Whole cathedral and every detail of it represents a value of art – but some of these values are outstanding. One is Gothic frescoe by Gentile da Fabriano, "Madonna Enthroned with Child", 1425, another is Pietà – a sculptural group by Ippolito Scalza, 1579. Beautiful and old is the stained glass window in the apse, made by Giovanni di Bonino between 1328 and 1334.

Two chapels in the cathedral – Cappella del Corporale and Cappella di San Brizio – contain art values of world importance.

Cappella del Corporale

Chapel of the Corporal was built between 1350 and 1356 in order to house the main relic of the cathedral – corporal of Bolsena. Chapel is adorned with beautiful frescoes painted by three local artists – Ugolino di Prete Ilario, Domenico di Meo and Giovanni di Buccio Leonardelli. Some details express anti-semitism which was widespread in this period. This chapel contains also the remains of mayor of Orvieto – St. Pietro Parenzo, killed by Cathars in 1199. Numerous miracles were reported at his grave – and now this is the main reasons for many pilgrimages to Orvieto. His remains were transferred to the cathedral after its construction.

Cappella di San Brizio

Chapel of the Madonna di San Brizio was built in 1408 – 1444 and is devoted to Saint Britius (San Brizio).

Vaults and walls of this beautiful chapel were painted by Fra Angelico and Benozzo Gozzoli (1447), but especially interesting are the later frescoes by Luca Signorelli (1499 – 1503). These frescoes are some of the most beautiful and interesting ones in Italy.

Signorelli painted Apocalypse and the Last Judgement – which, obviously, are very exciting themes, where artist can express himself.

Thus, "The Preaching of the Antichrist" shows Antichrist, but in the crowd stand famous people – Dante, Raphael, Christopher Columbus, Boccaccio and Signorelli himself. "Damned are taken to Hell and received by Demons" shows horrible demons attacking a group of people. Many frescoes show interesting experiments of Signorelli in three-dimensional imaging.

Unique skills of project management

The archive of the cathedral has been preserved and contains very detailed description of construction works. Here we can learn, how people in Italy organized large scale projects, involving many arts and tastes and lasting for several centuries.

Turns out, the project management was on a very high level by today’s standards. There was very strict division of works between different artisans, they had complex systems of evaluation, promotion and assessment of their fees. People spent whole life by working at the construction of Orvieto Cathedral and slowly, step by step rising up in their career. This was a teamwork, but the names of most masters have been forgotten now.

References

1. Duomo di Orvieto. Accessed on July 20, 2012
2. Website of Jane and Dick Schmitt, Orvieto Duomo — Part 1. Accessed on July 20, 2012

Orvieto Cathedral is included in the following list:

It took 582 years to build Milan Cathedral. The lives of many priests, architects, stonemasons were (and still are) devoted to this building. Now it is built: one of the most beautiful buildings in the world, enormous, white, ornate and unusual.

Construction history of Milan Cathedral

582 years is a very long time – thus the build history of Milan Cathedral is very complex and long.

Beginning

Cathedral is located in the center of an ancient street network. Thus it is well possible that already at Roman times here was located some shrine.

The first cathedral was built here by 355 AD – the cathedral of St. Maria Maggiore. In 836 Basilica of St. Tecla was built next to it.

In fact, Battistero Paleocristiano still can be visited under the Milan Cathedral. It is one more wonder of this place, one of the oldest Christian buildings in Europe, built by 355 AD. Most likely right here St. Ambrose baptized St. Augustine.

Both the cathedral and basilica were damaged by fire in 1075. Later the tower of the old cathedral collapsed. Authorities and citizens saw the need for a new cathedral.

The new ruler of Milan, Gian Galeazzo Visconti, and his cousin, Archbishop Antonio da Saluzzo used the possibility to prove that the new authorities of Milan are far better than the previous tyrant Barnabò. They started the construction of the new cathedral in 1386.

1386 – 1402: Lombardian architecture against French architecture

Initially, works were led by the Italian architect and engineer Simone da Orsenigo. Several large buildings were removed from the construction site and ambitious construction started. This activity was much supported among the citizens of Milan and a huge amount of donations was collected.

The old church of St. Maria Maggiore was used as a source of construction stone for the new church. Basilica of St. Tecla was standing longer – up to 1548.

Orsenigo planned to build the cathedral in Lombard Gothic style, from brick. Ambitions of Visconti were higher – he wanted to follow the newest trends in European arts and architecture.

French architect Nicolas de Bonaventure was invited to work in Milan in 1389. Bonaventure redesigned the cathedral to the French – Rayonnant Gothic style. He also decided that the brick building should be paneled with Candoglia marble.

This beautiful marble is nearly white, with a slight pink hue. The quarry is located in the Alps, northwest of Milan. This quarry is owned by the builders of Milan Cathedral up to this day.

Works proceeded well, walls became higher and ten years later it was necessary to install special machinery to raise stones to a great height. Another French master – Jean Mignot – was invited sometimes around 1399. Mignot was very critical about the work done thus far and considered that the structure is close to collapse – what was not correct.

Many foreign architects were invited to assist in the construction of the cathedral – and experienced growing discontent of local Lombardian stonemasons. Workers were irritated by constant changes in ongoing works. Construction proceeded in a very tense atmosphere. Nevertheless, constant conflicts and hardship resulted in highly original work of high build quality.

When Galeazzo Visconti died in 1402, the cathedral was almost half-built. Works slowed down due to the lack of financing and incentive.

1402 – 1649: Renaissance or Baroque style?

Large-scale works resumed around 1480 – walls and roof of the building were built and sometimes around 1500 – 1510 the decoration of the interior was started.

The exterior of Milan Cathedral for a long time remained plain, undecorated. Works slowed down after 1510, smaller adornments and interior details were added.

Carlo Borromeo became archbishop of Milan in 1564 – and construction was restarted. Pellegrino Tibaldi was appointed as the new chief engineer in 1571 and he decided to modernize the architecture of the cathedral. Instead of the French-inspired Gothic, he proposed the genuine Italian Renaissance architecture.

This redesign did not happen – Borromeo died and Pellegrini left the city in 1584.

Meanwhile, interior works continued and the cathedral was consecrated in 1577.

Finally, in the early 17th century started the construction of the facade in the Mannerism – Baroque style. Five portals were built until 1638.

New chief architect – Carlo Buzzi – though reverted to the old design of the cathedral in 1649. The facade was altered back to the Gothic style.

1649 – today: works finished?

The tallest detail – Madonnina’s spire – was built in 1762. It was designed by Francesco Croce and stands 108.5 m tall. On the top of the spire is a 4.16 m tall statue of Madonnina. According to a tradition, no building in Milan is taller than Madonnina – the tallest skyscrapers in Milan are crowned with small replicas of the statue.

The facade was finished in the times of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1805 – 1813 – he was crowned as a King of Italy in the cathedral in 1805. Architects used the old Gothic design, with some influences of Neo-Gothic style.

Works continued throughout the 19th – 20th century. Cathedral got new, less luxurious stained glass windows in 1829 – 1858, the aging constructions were renovated. The last gate of the cathedral was inaugurated on January 6, 1965. This is considered to be the finish of construction, although some minor works still are waiting to be done.

Nevertheless works at Milan Cathedral are never complete. There is a whole institution, Veneranda Fabbrica del Duomo di Milano, which maintains the cathedral. It was established in 1387 and is busy up to this day with the endless works of restoration. Thus, the facade was renovated in 2003 – 2009, as the beautiful Candoglia marble is easily damaged by air pollution and aging.

The architecture of Milan Cathedral

Exterior

Milan Cathedral is the second-largest Gothic cathedral in the world by volume and area – only Seville Cathedral in Spain is larger.

Cathedral has the highest Gothic vaults (45 m) in the world, except for Beauvais Cathedral (48 m) – which is not completed.

Some more numbers: Milan Cathedral is 158 m long, it has 52 columns. Columns of the nave are 24.5 m high.

135 spires rise above the cathedral, like a marble forest. These pinnacles are linked with flying buttresses, making the scene even more exciting.

Cathedral is adorned with some 3,400 statues. These statues have been made and donated by numerous sculptors, they have been made in numerous styles – starting from the Gothic style and ending up with Art Deco from the 20th century.

The roof of the cathedral can be visited – and few walks are comparable to this. Visitors are marveling at countless sculptures and incredibly thin marble columns high above the city.

Interior

While the exterior of the cathedral is light, ornate, and inspiring, the interior seems to be almost ascetic and rather dark.

The floor in the cathedral was designed by Pellegrino Tibaldi and made in 1584 – 1940. It is made from the white Candoglia marble with Varenna black marble and Arzo red marble.

The giant cathedral holds many values. To the believers most precious is The Holy Nail, reportedly from the True Cross. It hangs over the altar and is illuminated with a red light.

Unusual and highly valued is the statue of St. Bartholomew Flayed, which was made by Marco D’Agrate in 1562. It looks ghostly and at the same time emits weird energy. Cathedral has one of the largest organs in the world, it has a valuable collection of sculptures and paintings.

Reviews and critics

Throughout the long centuries of construction and eternal conflicts between the builders and designers this building has obtained its own style, it is different from any other building in the world. People look at it with awe and admiration, but their verdicts about the architectural qualities are various.

Respected critics of architecture criticized the cathedral, especially in the 19th century. John Ruskin wrote that the cathedral steals “from every style in the world: and every style spoiled… Not a ray of the invention in a single form… Finally, the statues all over are of the worst possible common stonemasons…”.

Also, Oscar Wilde wrote to his mother in 1875: “The Cathedral is an awful failure. Outside the design is monstrous and inartistic. The over-elaborated details stuck high up where no one can see them; everything is vile in it; it is, however, imposing and gigantic as a failure, through its great size and elaborate execution.”.

But Mark Twain wrote in 1867:

“They say that the Cathedral of Milan is second only to St. Peter’s at Rome. I cannot understand how it can be second to anything made by human hands.”

Well, Wondermondo would rather agree with Mark Twain…

References

1. Sacred Destinations. Milan Baptistery. Accessed on July 15, 2011
2. Duomo di Milano, Architettura in Duomo. Accessed on July 15, 2011

Milan Cathedral is included in the following list: