Giant volcano

In a remote, sparsely populated area of Bolivia is located a giant mountain – Nevado Sajama. It belongs to the highest volcanoes in the world – its height is 6 542 m and it rises for some 4 kilometers around its surroundings. Nevado Sajama is the tallest mountain in Bolivia.

The summit of the volcano is covered with snow and ice but further below on its slopes grows a unique forest of queñua de altura (Polylepis tomentella).

Polylepis tomentella

The genus Polylepis includes some 28 species of shrubs and trees that grow in the Andes, in Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, Chile, and Argentina. These plants belong to the enormous rose family.

Scientists are interested in these plants because Polylepis is able to grow in very dry and cold conditions high in the mountains. It happens that around the high-altitude Polylepis plants are no other plants, just stones. These survival abilities of the plant though come with a cost: in warmer and wetter conditions the slow-growing trees are outcompeted by other plants.

Queñua de altura (Polylepis tomentella) is the most extreme of all species in this genus. These trees grow at a height of some 4 – 5.2 kilometers in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile. Their age may reach 700 years but due to their extremely slow growth rate the height rarely exceeds 5 m and the diameter of the trunk is below 0.4 m.

The tree grows in soils that have a medium annual temperature of only 5 ° C.

The woodlands of Polylepis tomentella consist mainly of this single species of trees but in this forest live many rare species of insects, birds, and plants.

Highest altitude forest

The uppermost forests in the world are on the northern slopes of Nevado Sajama. The highest seems to be a sparse, low group of trees and shrubs at the height of roughly 5 000 m. These trees are not higher than 3.5 m.

Separate trees and shrubs grow higher, up to the altitude of 5 200 m.

In earlier times queñua forests were much larger and healthier. It is assessed that just some 10% of the original forest remains in Bolivia now.

The area of the forest decreased due to several reasons. One of them was the firewood collection by local people. But another, a lot more negative factor seems to be climate change. It is speculated that due to the temperature rise queñua woodlands are replaced by other plants.

In order to protect these unique forests in 1939 was founded Sajama National Park. This helped to protect queñua from the cutting and processing into charcoal for local mines. Unfortunately, the national park can not protect the forest from the global climate crisis.

References

1. A. Azócar, F. Rada, C. García-Núnez, Functional Characteristics of the Arborescent Genus Polylepis along a latitudinal Gradient in the High Andes (PDF file), Interciencia, 32-10, October 2007. Accessed on 15th April 2022

Nevado Sajama queñua woodlands are included in the following article:

The southernmost forests of the world grow in the far south of Southern America, in the wind-swept Cape Horn archipelago. Just some 1.5 km from Cape Horn is a dense thicket of low shrubs and trees rising for a few meters above the peatland.

Magellanic subpolar forests

These southernmost forests belong to an unusual type of temperate rainforests – Magellanic subpolar forests. These forests are in the extreme southwest of South America, where the humid oceanic air brings abundant showers of rain. The climate there is cool – the medium temperature is just 3 – 4 degrees °C. Very frequent are storms and the very south – Hornos Island – is the stormiest among them all.

In spite of the low temperature, abundant rain is beneficial for vegetation. Low temperatures lead to another phenomenon – organic substances decompose slowly and, as a result, peat accumulates there faster than anywhere else in the world. As a result, it is even hard to tell the border between the ground and the “above the ground”: the forest grows on chaotic stacks of dead wood and leaves, legs of explorers all the time get stuck between the trunks and in the wet peat.

Description

Those tourists who manage to reach Hornos Island, usually see the southernmost forest when they visit the Faro de Cabo de Hornos and the nearby monument to the sailors who lost their lives at Cape Horn. But, in order to reach it, one should walk 4 – 5 km through the thicket. The weather usually is bad and, frankly, in the end, there would be not much to see anyway.Thus, only in January – February 2019, did a group of explorers explore this forest (1, 2). Their goal was not just to find the southernmost forest and trees but to collect data for future monitoring of climate change impact.

The southernmost forest of the world grows in a comparatively leeward location where the plants are protected by a mountain crest from the dominant western winds. It is exactly the force of the wind that prevents the further spread of forest on the island – the temperature and humidity there are suitable for forests.

The trees rise some 4 – 5 m above the ground. Constant winds have bent their trunks towards the east. In the forest grow several species of trees: ñire Nothofagus antarctica, Magellan’s beech (Nothofagus betuloides), and winter’s bark (Drimys winteri). One more common tree of Magellanic rainforests – Nothofagus pumilio – is absent there, although forests in the nearby Navarino Island have this tree as well.

The world’s southernmost tree is located just some 500 m south of this thicket. This is a low, small Magellan’s beach (Nothofagus betuloides) in a sparse group of seven trees. The tree rises above the ground for 57 cm, although it is some 2 m long. It is located just 17 m south of other tree species – ñire trees (Nothofagus antarctica) and winter’s barks (Drimys winteri).

Global climate change brings more severe winds to Cape Horn. Thus, the future brings more challenges to the hardy forest of Horno Island.

References

1. Brian Buma, Andrés Holz, Iván Diaz, Ricardo Rozzi, The world’s southernmost tree and the climate and windscapes of the southernmost forests, Ecography, September 2020. Accessed in 6 February 2022
2. Craig Welch, The tree at the bottom of the world—and the wind-blasted trek to find it, National Geographic, May 2021. Accessed in 6 February 2022

The southernmost forest at Cape Horn is included in the following article:

There is a unique forest high up in the mountains of California, near Nevada: a forest with the oldest trees in the world.

Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest is an extreme forest: it grows at the height of some 2.9 – 3.5 km, high above the “normal” forest, in a harsh, dry, cold, and windswept environment.

The soil in this area is dry and deserted, with scarce vegetation. But among the stones rise low, contorted, and amazingly beautiful trees. Photographers and other tourists love to come there to savor the unusual beauty of ancient, twisted trees in the lucid atmosphere of the mountains.

There are two main species of trees in this forest:

• The best known is Great Basin bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva). This tree grows in the mountains, at a height of some 2.9 – 3.4 km, and is found only in California, Nevada, and Utah. This is an extreme height for trees. The trees have been “driven” to this location by the gradually changing climate: bristlecone pines “found out” that the harsh conditions high in the mountains are excellent for them because there are no competitors.
• The other pine – limber pine (Pinus flexilis) – also is an impressive and picturesque tree. This pine reaches very old age as well: there was documented an almost 3,000 years old tree in Alberta (Canada). In Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest, these trees are not that old.

History of the discovery of Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest

Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest is a protected area with an area of 113.3 km². It is located inside a much larger protected area: Inyo National Forest, a true natural wonderland with many unusual and unique natural landmarks.

This remote forest of old, contorted trees caught the attention of scientists in the 1950ies when the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research at the University of Arizona was searching for old trees. Trees in temperate zones record the weather conditions in tree rings, and these recordings are of great value for climate research. Thus, an older tree provides information about a more distant past. But, not every tree is good for a quality chronological record: trees in lowlands often are recording small-scale events, like local floods, and groundwater level changes. Much better information could be provided by mountain forests.

Step by step dendrochronologist Edmund Schulman and other scientists discovered more and more old trees in the mountains and got rich information about the climate of the last millennia.

Based on some rumors about visibly old trees in the White Mountains, Schulman and his colleague Frits W. Went in 1953 came to these remote mountains and, upon the direction of a local ranger Alvin Noren, reached a giant bristlecone pine – Patriarch. It was “only” 1500 years old, but scientists noticed many more trees that looked very old.

In 1954 and 1955 Schulman and his assistant C.W.Fergusson returned to this amazing forest and step by step learned where to look for older trees. It turned out that one should not look for the largest pine trees but for the ones that grow in the harshest conditions. Some of the oldest trees had just a narrow strip of live tissue and most of the tree trunk was dead. Nevertheless, such trees still had some green branches: they were alive! The excited scientists found several trees that were more than 4,000 years old! This was a breakthrough for the science of dendrochronology that did not have any reliable data about the time before our era, e.g. birth of Christ.

In 1957 they discovered the oldest known tree in the world: Methuselah tree, which was “born” in 2833 BC! This tree is older than, for example, the Great Sphinx of Giza, the oldest large man-made sculpture in the world.

Schulman, unfortunately, died in 1958, but his discovery immediately became famous worldwide. The Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest was declared a protected area in 1958.

Which is the oldest tree in the forest?

Of course, Schulman did not research all the thousands of trees in the enormous Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest. And, most certainly, there are even older trees in the forest.

Thus, in 2009 another dendrochronologist, Tom Harlan, announced that another tree not far from Methuselah had an age of 5,062 years, but, unfortunately, this claim has not been independently confirmed: scientist, unfortunately, deceased in 2013 and the location of the tree was not documented as well as the sample core could not be found.

There are several more Great Basin bristlecone pines that were declared to be older: e.g. Prometheus was more than 4,844 years old in 1964 when it was cut down. This tree was growing elsewhere, in Nevada.

Groves and tourist trails

This unique forest is traditionally divided into smaller parts – groves. Most visitors see Schulman Grove: there are several nature trails and a visitor center (open in summer).

The south-eastern part of Schulman Grove is called also Methuselah Grove. A nature trail, Methuselah Trail, passes the local celebrity: the Methuselah tree. The tree, though, is not marked and its exact location is not disclosed to protect it from possible violations.

Some 16 km north (in a direct line) is the Patriarch Grove. In this part of the forest, in turn, is located the largest bristlecone pine in the world: the above-mentioned Patriarch Tree (approximate circumference: 11.5 m, height: 13.1 m tall). The circumference is measured around the multiple stems of this impressive tree.

References

1. Thomas J. Straka, Biographical Portrait, EDMUND P. SCHULMAN, Forest History Today, spring 2008. Accessed on 20th July 2022.

Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest is included in the following article:

The most remote part of Congo jungle?

Some of the most remote and intact equatorial forests are found in the area near the junction of the borders of the Republic of Congo, Cameroon, and the Central African Republic. Here has developed one of the most biodiverse ecosystems in the world – the Congo lowland forest.

Up to this day, this is an immense forest with scattered villages of pygmy people, rich with legends about unusual animals – such as the terrible mokele-mbembe in Lake Tele. Of course, occasional poachers and logging companies are encroaching on these forests as well, and step by step the virginity of this forest is receding.

The missing part of Nouabale-Ndoki National Park

This forest is protected by several protected natural territories. One of them – Nouabale-Ndoki National Park – was created in 1991-1993. The southern border of this national park initially was just a direct line – the local logging company “Congolaise Industrielle des Bois” (CIB) – did not want to see it included in the park because they had a logging concession there. After all this forest is rich with mahogany and other valuable hardwoods – one can make a good profit from it.

Around 1995 the explorers heard the first rumors about a location in the forest south of the national park where animals do not fear people. Soon after researchers managed to pass the dense forest and swamp and reached the equatorial forest between Ndoki (to the southwest) and Goualougo (to the southeast) rivers and their discoveries here have been sensational.

By 1999 there was set up an ape research station, initially by Dave Morgan but soon after he was joined by Crickette Sanz and other scientists and local enthusiasts. Step by step scientists and environmentalists managed to persuade the logging company to abandon its plans to start logging here. In 2001 this unusual forest – Goualougo Triangle – was included in Nouabale-Ndoki National Park.

The pristine forest of Goualougo Triangle

Goualougou Triangle is an absolutely pristine forest where people, most likely, have never lived and few have ever visited it. Even hunters have not reached it. The closest human settlement is Bomassa pygmy village 55 km away.

This equatorial forest has stable climatic conditions – medium temperature here throughout the year is 22 °C.

Here live numerous rare animals and plants, including forest elephants, and western lowland gorillas, but especially common are central (common) chimpanzees. This land is well suited for great apes as the forest supplies them with a huge variety of diverse fruits little known outside this region, such as Treculia africana.

Unique population of chimpanzees

It is assessed that in Goualougo Triangle live some 450 – 750 chimpanzees and some 700 – 1000 gorillas. Contrary to other populations of these animals, here they, at least chimpanzees are constantly innovating and learning new technologies by themselves.

Fearlessness and curiosity

Local animals have not learned the dark side of human nature. Thus chimpanzees and other animals are curious and not afraid to meet humans, they do not escape. Often the opposite happens – chimpanzees are curious and call others to come and look at humans. Sometimes it is hard to get rid of them: people get bored but chimpanzees still look at humans as unseen and weirdly similar creatures. Never before researchers have seen such behavior in chimpanzees. Everywhere else apes are just escaping the humans – and, in order to research them, explorers need years to habituate them.

Human diseases are dangerous to chimpanzees. No doubts, uncontacted groups of chimpanzees have no immunity against most of these diseases. Thus researchers approach apes with surgical masks – to protect the apes from possible illness.

Researchers have decided to habituate just a few groups of local chimpanzees while other great apes in this forest will be less in contact.

The most sophisticated culture of great apes on Earth

Chimpanzees in the Goualougo triangle have one more unusual trait – they have a lot more sophisticated culture of toolmaking than any other population of chimpanzees in the world. Local chimpanzees are purposefully selecting the right sticks or any other tools best suited for their intended activities, e.g. picking out the ants from anthills or getting the honey from tree hollows. Chimpanzees adjust their tools, for example, chew the twigs to get brushes for a better collection of ants.

If they find an especially comfortable tool, apes bring it from one known nut-bearing tree to another finally leaving it at the tree for repeated use. Researchers have observed also that chimpanzees teach their skills to others and how young chimpanzees learn from the elder ones.

Thus far this is the only place on Earth where humans can observe how another species of animals is innovating and learning new technologies by itself. Elsewhere these great apes have no possibility to evolve like this because there is less social tolerance as the apes are persecuted and their behavior is influenced by the constant escape from humans or permanent loss of equilibrium between the groups of animals due to logging or hunting. In socially intolerant conditions the younger generation of apes has no possibility to learn all the skills from the elder generation. They can not continue innovations, based on the previous achievements of their ancestors.

Goualougo triangle and human nature

This makes us think about ancient humans – after all, they had such a possibility to evolve and innovate. The miraculous forest of the Goualougo Triangle may provide some answers about the behavior of early humans.

Unfortunately, this “Last Eden” is endangered – step by step poachers and loggers approach this pristine land. The area around the Goualougo Triangle still is mostly pristine, but if it will be logged, also Goualougo Triangle will change, even if left untouched.

References

1. Goualougo Triangle Ape Project, accessed in 5th November 2018
2. Joshua Foer, The Truth About Chimps, National Geographic, February 2010
3. Crickette M. Sanz, David B. Morgan. The social context of chimpanzee tool use. Accessed in 5th November 2018

Goualougo Triangle is included in the following articles:

Sequoia groves

Giant sequoias are not common – in fact these highly unusual trees grow only in 68 groves with a total area of 144.16 km², and there is a concern that in the future number of these trees will decrease even with all the protection measures.

It is assessed that approximately one-fourth of all giant sequoias were lost due to logging in the 19th and early 20th centuries. At the same time, people had such high esteem for these magnificent forests that some of the first modern nature-protected areas were created exactly for the protection of these trees.

Giant sequoias are the biggest trees in the world by trunk volume (1,487 m³), fourth stoutest (General Grant Tree – approximate circumference – 27.8 m) and sixth-tallest in the world (sequoia in Converse Basin – 95.8 m).

Some of the conditions to make the sequoias thrive are moist, wet climates, and scarce undergrowth. The extreme size and height of sequoias have led to several specific adaptations in these plants: for example, they obtain the necessary moisture not only from the roots in the ground but also from the air roots.

Natural removal of the unneeded undergrowth though can not be managed by sequoias themselves. Here comes into action another factor: fire.

Supported by the fire

Over the last century the analysis of the tree rings has helped to explore the history of the local climate. Thanks to the extreme age of the trees (some live up to 3,200 years) it goes far into the past.

This research shows that on a regular basis the forest has experienced fires – larger forest fires take place here every 6 – 35 years (3). Sequoias are protected – at least – partly – from the fire by their thick bark – thus the fire eliminates other plants and does not reach the crown of the giant trees.

In order to maintain the ecological balance in the forest the national park organizes prescribed burning in the Giant Forest and other groves of giant sequoia. It was started in the 1960ies causing much controversy among general people who could not imagine that fire in the forest could bring any good. And, to be frank: the fire in the forest cannot be controlled completely – it happens that it kills also some sequoias and other large trees. But nevertheless, it helps to maintain the ecosystem.

The most impressive forest

Out of the 68 groves of sequoias the most prominent one is Giant Forest. There over an area of 7.6 km² grow some 8,000 sequoias and five of these trees belong in the list of the top 10 world’s largest trees including the largest (officially announced) one in the world – a tree named General Sherman. There are reported larger trees in California but these are not announced to the public.

These are only figures and facts. Words can not transmit the feelings created by this forest. If one manages to come here outside the tourist season and walk in solitude – this is an unforgettable, elating experience for the whole life.

Giant forest is located some 1,800 m (medium height) above the sea level on the western side of Sierra Nevada – thus, like other groves of sequoia it receives much rainfall and fog from the Pacific. It helps not only sequoias – but also mosquitoes are thriving here and are the most faithful followers to the visitors through the forest.

Tourist destination

Giant Forest is one of the most accessible sequoia groves with good roads leading to it – this, naturally, is a tourist magnet.

As one arrives in the park from the west, already the car park at the entrance in the park is overshadowed by giant trees of unseen size. Many trees have their own names and a dense network of trails (total length – 464 km) leads to diverse tree giants and impressive clusters of sequoias.

History

Before the Europeans there were living Mono people (Potwisha and Wuksachi groups) and Yokuts – some of these people even stayed in the forest for longer time periods.

First person of European descent to see this forest was Hale Dixon Tharp who was led to this site by local people in 1858. The life of this logger and cattle rancher since then was closely linked to this gorgeous forest – up to this day tourists are visiting his lodges.

In 1875 the forest was visited by the great naturalist John Muir who gave the forest its name – Giant Forest.

Fate of Giant Forest Village

In September 1890 there was founded Sequoia National Park which included also the Giant Forest.

As time went on, the popularity of the forest increased. As mass tourism developed during the second half of the 20th century, the pressure on the unique ecosystem increased. Thus it was decided to remove the village and preclude the possibility of tourists staying here overnight.

In earlier times this area was more densely populated – in the forest were scattered some 300 buildings – historical lodging and camping facilities. These buildings from the first half of the 20th century had certain historical value – the Giant Forest Village (Giant Forest Lodge Historic District) was a listed property.

Now only four buildings remain in the area of Giant Forest. Most of the other structures in the 1980ies – 1990ies were relocated to a newly created village – Wuksachi Village where tourists can stay also overnight. The area of the former village was restored to nearly natural conditions.

Prominent locations

Trees

Of course, the most impressive feature of Giant Forest is the giant sequoia trees. Some of the trees are especially large and interesting:

• General Sherman – the largest tree in the world with a volume of 1,487 m³. The tree is 83.8 m high and at the breast height, its circumference is 24.1 m. (1)
• President – third (or – possibly, second) largest tree in the world. This tree is named after president Warren G. Harding. The height of the tree is 74.7 m and the circumference at the height of 1.37 m is 24.5 m. The total volume of this tree is 1,278 m&sup3, and it might be older than General Sherman. (2)
• Lincoln – fourth largest tree in the world, 80.0 m tall. It has a volume of 1,259 m³.
• Franklin – eighth largest sequoia (and tree) in the world with a volume of 1,169 m³. It is named after Benjamin Franklin. This tree is 68.3 m tall. In spite of its immense size, it does not excel visually because it is located in a group of similar-sized trees around it.
• Monroe – tenth largest tree in the world by volume (1,136 m³), 75.5 m tall.
• Washington – formerly this was the second largest tree in the world (its volume was 1,355 m³) but it has collapsed and now there is "only" 35 m tall stump with some living branches.
• John Adams – 1,103 m³ large tree, 76.4 m tall.
• Column – 1,056 m³ large tree, 74.3 m tall. This tree is located near General Pershing.
• General Pershing – 1,015 m³ large tree, 75 m tall.
• Chief Sequoyah – located close to President. This giant tree has a circumference of 27.6 m and is 69.6 m tall, it has a volume of 951.7 m³.
• Hamilton – volume 928.3 m³, height 72.7 m. The tree is named after politician Alexander Hamilton.
• Cleveland – volume 887.3 m³, height 76.5 m. This tree is named after Grover Cleveland.

Other notable sites

• The Senate and The House – spectacular groups of giant sequoias. One feels like an ant between these trees.
• Crescent Meadow – small meadow surrounded by the giant sequoias. This is considered to be one of the most beautiful sites in Sierra Nevada.
• Round Meadow – another beautiful meadow that is surrounded by the wall of these otherworldy tree giants.
• Tunnel Log – fallen, 83.8 m long log of sequoia. In 1938 there was made a tunnel through – smaller vehicles can drive under the tree while larger ones can bypass it.
• Moro Rock – very impressive granite dome at the southern rim of the forest. It rises 75 m tall above the forest and is an attraction by itself.
• Tharp’s Log – shelter in a hollowed log of sequoia which was made by Hale Tharp around 1861. It has been restored as a tourist attraction.
• Cattle Cabin – one of the few remaining man-made structures in the forest. This simple cabin was built by Hale Tharp in 1890.
• Giant Forest Museum – one of the few structures left in the forest. Museum tells the story of local nature and people. The building was constructed in 1928, and designed by Gilbert Stanley Underwood.

References

1. General Sherman, the biggest tree in the world, Monumental Trees. Accessed in the 14th April 2017
2. Giant sequoia ‘President’ in the Giant Forest, Monumental Trees. Accessed in the 14th April 2017
3. Thomas W. Swetnam, Christopher H. Baisan, Anthony C. Caprio, Peter M. Brown, Ramzi Touchan, R. Scott Anderson, and Douglas J. Hallett. Multi-Millenial Fire History of the Giant Forest, Sequoia National Park, California, USA, Fire Ecology, Vol.5, No.3., 2009. doi: 10.4996/fireecology.0503120.

Giant Forest is included in the following article:

The most biodiverse place on Earth?

Although it requires more knowledge than we have today, it is likely that Yasuni Forest is the most biodiverse spot on Earth. The extreme biodiversity of this place is explained by the fact that there meet very diverse ecoregions – Andes and Amazon plains and the site is near the equator, it served as a refuge for numerous species during the ice age. The climate here is very wet, rain is almost daily but also the sun shines almost every day.

The forest holds the world record for species diversity for the following groups of living organisms:

• Reptiles (121 species);
• Bats (117 species);
• Freshwater fishes (more than 540 species);
• Insects (average hectare in this forest has more than 100,000 diverse species of insects – as much as in the whole of North America). Forest holds the world record for the number of social bee species – 64!
• Trees – 644 species per hectare, 1,852 known species, and some 300 unclassified species in total. This includes some 50 species of palms;
• Epiphytes (313 species);
• Lianas (more than 500 species);

Yasuni forest has unusually high species diversity for many other groups of organisms as well: birds (at least 596 species), all mammals (164 species including the above-mentioned bats), amphibians (150 species – only in Many National Park in Peru are more, 155). This is also one of the few (nine) places in the world with more than 4,000 species of vascular plants over a distance of 10,000 km².

43 species of vertebrates have been found only here, also some 220 – 720 species of plants are endemic to this forest.

Many new species are discovered here each year and there is a high potential that discoveries will continue in the future.

Part of Amazon rainforest

To be frank, this article goes in contradiction with the principle of Wondermondo – in general here are described landmarks which are not too large – less than 500 km². Yasuni Forest though is much larger than this – its area exceeds 10,000 km².

Nevertheless there is no other, better candidate for one very important world record: the most biodiverse place in the world. The research of Yasuni forest is ongoing and it is not entirely clear whether there is a place here that has more diversity than the others and where such a place could be.

Yasuni forest is part of a much larger forest region – the Amazon rainforest, located near the northwestern corner of this amazing ecosystem. It is generally considered that the Yasuni forest is located between Napo and Curaray rivers in eastern Ecuador. Western borders of this forest are not clearly set but the research shows that in general, the biodiversity increases exactly towards the western part of this forest.

Part of the forest is protected by Yasuni National Park (9,820 km²), founded in 1979. Next to it in 1999 there was created a protected area of another type: the Tagaeri-Tarmonenane Untouchable Zone, where the Huaorani people could live their traditional life. This also is a large area (around 7,000 km²) and biologically – a continuation of this same forest with the same unique qualities.

Huaorani

Yasuni Forest is the ancestral territory of Huaorani (Waorani) people – an unusual ethnic group that speaks in a language that is not similar to any other one.

Today there remain only some 4,000 Huaorani. These people always have been fiercely protecting their land from outside influence – from time to time the thieves stealing the wood from these lands have been killed by them and this definitely has helped to preserve this unique place.

At least five groups of Huaorani have decided to live without contact with the outside world and, as the people from "outside" move into the forest, these groups of Huaorani move elsewhere, to more isolated areas, from time to time attacking outsiders. Of course, these people know the unique Yasuni forest much better than anyone else.

Two most prominent groups of Huaorani who stayed in the forest are Tagaeri and Taromenane. Other Huaorani have somewhat mixed feelings about them: they fear these people and at the same time are proud of their ability to choose their own way of life.

Oil

Unfortunately under the forest there is another kind of wealth: in this part of Amazon is found oil, some 20% of all the reserves of Ecuador, approximately 800 million barrels. The economy of Ecuador to a large extent depends on the sales of oil. Over the last decades, the oil extraction industry and tree loggers have encroached on Yasuni Forest, especially the Untouchable Zone – if one looks at Google Earth, this area looks "touched" a lot. Oil extraction often pollutes the forest and, of course, this creates a danger to all life forms here.

In order to prevent the oil extraction at least in a part of Yasuni Forest president of Ecuador Rafael Correa asked the outside world in 2007 to compensate for the non-extraction of oil in this part (ITT-Block) by paying 3.6 billion USD to Ecuador and these finances would be used to develop sustainable energetics in this country. This so-called Yasuni-ITT initiative was taken initially as a progressive movement and it certainly has brought some benefits, such as the understanding of most people in Ecuador that Yasuni is a huge value to the country. Nevertheless, the world was not too confident about such investment, and by the middle of 2012 "only" 200 million were collected. Over this period of time, the oil extraction industry encroached on this area, discrediting the idea. Now we can only hope that low oil prices will help to preserve this unique place for some more time.

References

1. Gines Haro Pastor, Georgina Donati, with Troth Wells, Yasuni Green Gold. 2008.
2. Margot S. Bass, Matt Finer, Clinton N. Jenkins, Holger Kreft, Diego F. Cisneros-Heredia, Shawn F. McCracken, Nigel C. A. Pitman, Peter H. English, Kelly Swing, Gorky Villa, Anthony Di Fiore, Christian C. Voigt, Thomas H. Kunz. Global Conservation Significance of Ecuador’s Yasuní National Park. PLOS, January 19, 2010.

Yasuni Forest is included in the following article:

Natural history

The volcanic Robinson Crusoe Island rose from the depths of the Pacific some 4.2 – 3.8 million years ago. It is located some 600 km from South America. The island has an area of 9,300 ha, and the highest summit is El Yunque, 916 m.

Climate on the island is sub-tropical, mild, and rainy – no wonder that the island got covered with dense vegetation. Plants arrived here occasionally – some by the streams, some were brought by occasional birds. Some plants on the island are relicts – their closest relatives were living on continents but are extinct now. Over time here evolved numerous local species of plants.

Colonies

The unique ecosystem has survived on these small islands thanks to the fact that the people came here late. Juan Fernández islands were discovered in 1574 and a small settlement here was established in 1591 – 1596.

Unfortunately the establishment of the first colony started the introduction of alien plants and animals – goats, pigs, and dogs. Colonies on the island were abandoned and then again established, there were living also castaways, including Alexander Selkirk – the possible prototype of Robinson Crusoe.

Unfortunately the coming of the people brought catastrophic change to the ecosystem. Forests have been logged and burned, and an unknown number of unique species have been exterminated by the introduced animals and plants.

The forest was nearly intact until the early 19th century, but then logging started here. In the late 19th century started intense soil erosion and islanders were forced to make forest plantations in some parts of the island to prevent the loss of soil. Unfortunately, erosion processes continue here up to this day.

National park and research

The government of Chile declared a national park here in 1935. In 1977 islands became a UNESCO-approved Biosphere Reserve.

Today Robinson Cruzoe island is a recognized attraction point to many scientists. There are few other small islands in the world with that much scientific work devoted to them.

Much effort is put to preserve the unique natural heritage. An 8.3 km long fence was built to prevent the cattle from entering into a forest.

The biggest danger to the ecosystem of Robinson Crusoe Island is created by alien plants. Three such plants are especially dangerous to the local plants: Aristotelia chilensis, Ugni molinae, and Rubus ulmifolius. It seems that this terrible trio alone could replace all the local vegetation over the next 70 years.

Ecolocigal hotspot

Extraordinary endemism on these islands makes them unique in the world, with a specific ecosystem – the Juan Fernández Islands temperate forest – met only on Juan Fernández archipelago (basically – Robinson Crusoe Island). As a result, Juan Fernández Islands are one of two ecological mini-hotspots in the world – another is the Galapagos Islands.

Robinson Crusoe Island offers fantastic scenery, with more than 600 m tall sea cliffs and magnificent mountains and ravines. The part of the island, which rises above 600 m in height, is constantly shrouded in clouds – the forest there is soaked, and water is dripping from the leaves constantly.

The forest in Robinson Crusoe Island is divided into altitude zones. Tall forest (with much impact from alien species) grows at 300 – 500 m height, lower montane forest – at 500 – 700 m, tree fern forest – at 700 – 750 m, and high brushwood on exposed cliffs – at 500 – 850 m height.

These forests are different – but all of them are composed of endemic tree species, unique worldwide.

Endemics

132 species of plants on Juan Fernández islands are endemic (with 1 endemic plant family and 12 endemic genes). Most of these plant species are met only on Robinson Crusoe Island. 79 species are native – but met elsewhere as well. And a huge lot – some 260 species – are introduced by man.

Amazing is the diversity of ferns – out of 53 species of local ferns 23 are endemic. Happily, ferns withstand the degradation of the ecosystem much better.

Thus Robinson Crusoe Island has the highest density of endemic plants per unit of area in the world – no other oceanic island can compete in this respect.

Endemic animals

Less impressive is the number of endemic animal species. There are known more than 230 endemic insects (e.g. Kalotermes gracilignatus), but the most interesting are the birds.

Juan Fernández Firecrown (Sephanoides fernandensis) is a rare and endangered hummingbird, the only endemic hummingbird on an oceanic island. Although the native forest is the original habitat of this beautiful bird, today they are often seen in the gardens in San Juan Bautista village.

Another endemic forest bird is Juan Fernández Tit-Tyrant (Anairetes fernandezianus).

Endemic plant species of Robinson Crusoe forest

This list is not exhaustive – there are even more endemic species of plants!

1. Apium fernandezianum
2. Arthropteris altescandens – fern, grows also on Masafuera island
3. Asplenium macrosorum – fern, also on Masafuera island
4. Asplenium stellatum – fern, also on Masafuera island
5. Azara serrata var. fernandeziana – shrub with yellow flowers
6. Berberis corymbosa – small shrub with yellow flowers, grows on cliffs
7. Blechnum cycadifolium – tree fern, also on Masafuera island, forms very dense stands.
8. Blechnum mochaenum – small fern, also on Masafuera island
9. Blechnum schottii – a beautiful fern, climber
10. Boehmeria excelsa – tree
11. Carex berteroniana – grass, also on Masafuera island
12. Centaurodendron dracaenoides – tree with impressive flowers
13. Centaurodendron palmiforme – very rare tree
14. Chenopodium crusoeanum
15. Chenopodium sanctae-clara – tree, today found only on a small island next to Robinson Crusoe Island
16. Chusquea fernandeziana – bamboo
17. Colletia spartioides – grows on cliffs
18. Coprosma oliveri – shrub or tree
19. Coprosma pyrifolia – tree, also on Masafuera island
20. Cuminia eriantha var. eriantha – a shrub with beautiful flowers
21. Cuminia eriantha var. fernandezia
22. Cuminia fernandezia – a shrub with beautiful flowers
23. Dendroseris berteroana
24. Dendroseris litoralis – tree. At one moment in the 1980s, only 3 plants remained, still endangered. Beautiful orange flowers. Some plants are grown in local gardens.
25. Dendroseris macrantha
26. Dendroseris marginata – grows on cliffs
27. Dendroseris micrantha
28. Dendroseris neriifolia – a tree with white flowers, only two are remaining
29. Dendroseris pinnata
30. Dendroseris pruinata – white flowers, found also on a small island next to Robinson Crusoe Island
31. Dicksonia berteroana – tree fern, grows more than 5 m tall, mainly in upper montane forest
32. Drimys confertifolia – tree, also on Masafuera island. Abundant, up to 25 m tall.
33. Dysopsis hirsuta – herb
34. Elaphoglossum squamatum – one remaining
35. Erigeron fernandezianus – small herb, also on Masafuera island
36. Eryngium bupleuroides – grows on cliffs
37. Eryngium inaccessum
38. Eryngium x fernandezianum
39. Escallonia callcottiae
40. Fagara mayu – tree
41. Greigia berteroii
42. Gunnera bracteata – enormous, up to 1.5 m tall herb with large leaves, mainly in upper montane forest.
43. Gunnera bracteata x peltata
44. Gunnera glabra – a synonym for Gunnera peltata?
45. Gunnera peltata – one of the most spectacular endemics on the island. This giant "rhubarb" grows up to 2 m tall and forms dense growes at the bottom of the deep ravines.
46. Haloragis masatierrana
47. Hymenophyllum cuneatum var. rariforme – fern in upper montane forest
48. Hymenophyllum rugosum – fern in upper montane forest
49. Juania australis – Chonta Palm, the only species in the genus, up to 15 m tall
50. Lactoris fernandeziana – small, flowering shrub, the only representative of Lactoridaceae family. Grows in the cloud forest. The most exotic of the local plants.
51. Machaerina scirpoidea
52. x Margyracaena skottsbergii – a possible intergeneric cross between the local Margyricarpus diginus and introduced Acaena argentea. Possibly extinct on the island, only in a botanical garden in mainland Chile.
53. Margyricarpus digynus – small herb
54. Megalachne berteroana – grass, also on Masafuera island
55. Megalachne masafuerana – grass, also on Masafuera island
56. Megalastrum inaequalifolium – fern
57. Myrceugenia fernandeziana – dominating tree in the forest, especially in upper montane forest, up to 25 m tall.
58. Notholaena chilensis – small fern, also on Masafuera island
59. Ochagavia elegans – beautiful bromeliad, grows on exposed cliffs
60. Ophioglossum fernandezianum – fern
61. Peperomia berteroana – also on Masafuera island
62. Peperomia fernandeziana var. oblongifolia – herb, also on Masafuera island
63. Peperomia margaritifera var. margaritifera
64. Peperomia margaritifera var. umbraticola
65. Pernettya rigida – grows on cliffs
66. Plantago fernandezia
67. Podophorus bromoides – extinct
68. Polypodium intermedium subsp. intermedium – fern
69. Polystichum tetragonum – fern, also on Masafuera island
70. Pteris berteroana – fern, also on Masafuera island
71. Raphithamnus venustus – called – Juan Bueno. Shrub and small tree with fine lilac flowers, grows also on Masafuera island
72. Rea pruinata
73. Robinsonia berteroi – tree, the last remaining plant died in Mai 2004
74. Robinsonia evenia – yellow flowers
75. Robinsonia gayana – greenish-yellow flowers, grows on cliffs
76. Robinsonia gracilis – yellow flowers
77. Robinsonia macrocephala – possibly extinct
78. Robinsonia masatierrae – extinct since 1989
79. Robinsonia thurifera
80. Rumohra berteroana – fern, also on Masafuera island
81. Santalum fernandezianum – became extinct due to extensive harvesting. Last seen in 1908.
82. Selkirkia berteroii – shrub
83. Serpyllopsis caespitosa – also on Masafuera island
84. Solanum fernandezianum
85. Sophora fernandeziana var. fernandeziana
86. Sophora fernandeziana var. reedeana
87. Spergularia confertiflora var. confertiflora – small herb, also on Masafuera island
88. Spergularia confertiflora var. polyphylla – small herb, also on Masafuera island
89. Thyrsopteris elegans – tree fern, the only species in the genus, grows in upper montane forest. Met on Masafuera island as well.
90. Trichomanes ingae – fern
91. Trichomanes philippianum – fern
92. Ugni selkirkii – shrub
93. Uncinia douglasii – also on Masafuera island
94. Urtica glomeruliflora – also on Masafuera island
95. Wahlenbergia berteroi – one plant also on Santa Clara Island
96. Wahlenbergia fernandeziana – small plant with wonderful white flowers
97. Wahlenbergia grahamiae – small shrub with white flowers
98. Wahlenbergia larrainii – possibly the same fernandeziana. Extinct in wild
99. Yunquea tenzii – tree, no flowers of this tree have been seen, only 23 trees known

References

1. Ana M. Abarzúa and Cecilia Smith‐Ramírez, Establishing the bases for a long term study about endemic biodiversity in Juan Fernández Archipelago, Chile. Centro de Estudios en Ecología y Biodiversidad (CASEB) Pontificia Universidad Católica de ChileGlobal Exploration. September 2010. Accessed in 07.01.2012.
2. Juan Fernandez Islands temperate forest (NT0401). World Wildlife Fund. Accessed in 07.01.2012.
3. Atholl Anderson, Simon Haberle, Gloria Rojas, Andrea Seelenfreund, Ian Smith and Trevor Worthy. An Archaeological Exploration of Robinson Crusoe Island, Juan Fernandez Archipelago. 2002. Accessed in 07.01.2012.
4. Plantas endémicas del Archipiélago de las islas de Juan Fernández, a set of photographs in Flickr. Accessed in 07.01.2012.
5. Clodomiro Marticorena, Tod F. Stuessy, and Carlos M. Baeza. Catalogue of the Vascular Flora of the Robinson Crusoe of Juan Fernandez Islands, Chile, Gayana, v. 55 no. 2 1998. Accessed in 07.01.2012.

Forest on Robinson Crusoe Island is included in the following articles:

Phylica arborea

Phylica arborea (also Phylica nitida) is an amazing plant which grows only on some sub-Antarctic islands – Amsterdam, Tristan da Cunha and Gough. Amsterdam Island is very far from Tristan da Cunha – thus it is a mystery how this species managed to "find" these islands.

The tree is shrub-like, with sweet, honey-scented leaves. It produces small berries and grows up to 6 – 7 m high.

Phylica forest covered only the lowlands of the island, up to the height of some 250 m above sea level.

This tree is not the only plant species in the lowland – Grand Bois includes also several kinds of grass, ferns, and other plants. Unfortunately, the impact of introduced plant species is increasing.

Human impact

Earlier, before the building of the Suez Canal, the travel to Australia and New Zealand required a long trip across the Indian Ocean. The hunting of seals and whales in the far southern seas became a profitable business in the 19th century. Amsterdam Island was one of the very few more or less hospitable places in the wast, deserted expanses of the Southern Ocean.

Thus quite a few ships stopped here and harvested the forest for wood. In 1871 there were released five cattle and the number of these animals stabilized around 2000. There were released other animals – cats, pigs, and goats. The biggest impact was left by cattle – animals trampled the ground and ate the trees wherever they could access them.

Humans caused also several devastating fires – the accumulated peat was burning well in the dry periods of the year.

Extinctions

When the people first saw the island, there were living at least 22 species of birds, most of them endemic to Amsterdam Island. Now here live only 10 – 11 species of seabirds, others, including the flightless Amsterdam duck Anas marecula, are extinct.

Conservation

The remaining patch of Grand Bois was encircled with a row of cypress – an introduced species of tree. It has been efficient – inside this "fence" there are many trees, while outside it only a few Phylica arborea managed to survive in locations inaccessible to cattle.

Since the 1980s there have been started activities to renovate the original ecosystem of the island. The island has been divided by a fence and cattle (which now represent a special value as one of the few feral herds of cattle in the world) have been translocated to the smaller half of the island. The Phylica trees now are replanted in the northern part of the island.

References

1. Amsterdam and Saint-Paul Islands temperate grasslands (AT0802), World Wildlife Fund. Accessed on December 24, 2011.

Grand Bois is included in the following article:

Terraced rainforest

History of Christmas Island possibly started some 60 million years ago, when an undersea volcano raised above the surface of the ocean and a coral atoll formed around it, depositing limestone. Some 20 million years ago this mount and atoll started to sink slowly and corals busy worked to grow new layers of limestone in order to stay in shallow water.

Approximately 10 million years ago island – now covered with a thick limestone cap – started to rise up again. There were three uplifts – and these three uplifts formed several terraces around the island (sometimes merging into one terrace). The island rises 361 m above the ocean.

Nowadays the surface of Christmas Island is covered with rainforest – also the ancient terraces inside this forest are almost hidden in lush green vegetation. Island is surrounded by deep waters and life on this island for millions of years has developed in isolation.

Thus the whole island represents a unique biotope. Some parts of this rainforest are especially unique – such as The Dales and Hosnies Spring which are reviewed as separate landmarks by Wondermondo.

Phosphates and space flight

Although a major part of the island is covered with primeval forest, in many locations there were mined phosphates, and built roads, and the forest has been transversed by straight tracks. Rich deposits of phosphates were discovered in 1887 and in 1899 started phosphate mining and it continues since then. But nowadays there is not allowed to clear any more rainforest for mining operations.

In 2001 Australian – Russian consortium announced that there will be Asia Pacific Space Centre and by late 2003 the first launch of the space satellite will take place. It seemed that in this way Australia would play an active role in increasing Asian space activities.

Long and expensive environmental impact assessment procedure started (they wanted to use a major part of the unique island), gradually winding down the interest of investors.

Earlier, in 1980, there was established a national park which takes a major part of the island – 8,500 ha.

Land crabs

Rainforest of Christmas Island has the highest diversity of land crabs in the world. Crabs in many ways are the dominating animals on this island and there is no other forest in the world with crabs as dominating species.

In total there are known some 20 species of land crabs besides some 160 species of "common" crabs living in reefs and shallows around the island. Land crabs have evolved from sea crabs and are living either on a beach, in freshwater streams, or in the shade of rainforest. Especially unusual is the latest – these crabs are scavenging the ground of rainforest looking for fallen leaves, fruits, and saplings. Their droppings serve as fertilizer, burrowings aerate the soil, and their feeding habits decide the build of forest structure.

Red crabs

Most famous crab of the island is Christmas Island red crab Gecarcoidea natalis – dominating animal species in forest, endemic species met only on this island.

In total on the island live 50 – 100 million of these crabs which represents an unprecedented density of land crabs in the world. As early settlers have not reported unusual numbers of these crabs, it is possible that their number increased after the extinction of its natural enemy – Maclear’s rat (Rattus macleari). In the 19th century, these rats were everywhere on the island but went extinct in the early 20th century after the invasion of black rats and epidemics.

One of the impressive sights not only for Christmas Island but for the whole world is the yearly migration of red crabs. It seems that migration takes place in the time when there is the least difference between low and high tides – then it is safer to lay eggs. Migration starts on the plateau and lasts up to 18 days. Crabs gather in broad columns and repeat the same route each year. They prefer to go in the early morning or late afternoon – to avoid direct sunlight. The biggest danger to them is direct sunlight and heat.

Latest crab migration was ongoing in late October – early December 2010.

To save the crabs, the roads have special crab crossings and plastic walls, funneling them to these crossings. But there is another deadly enemy – invasive Yellow Crazy Ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes). It is the main reason why the number of red crabs is decreasing, although numerous other species of introduced animals are changing the ecosystem too. Since 2000 there is ongoing extermination of the supercolonies of crazy ants all over the island, decreasing their number by 99%.

Other forest crabs

Many of the land crabs live near the sea, on beaches. But Christmas island has several more species of land crabs living in forests.

One more endemic species is Jackson’s crab (Sesarma jacksoni), living in lower terraces of forest and in caves.

On the island lives the world’s largest population (around 1 million) of robber crabs (Birgus latro) – the largest land invertebrate in the world, up to 40cm long.

In the forest can be found also purple crab (Gecarcoide lalandii) but it is more rare. Close to the seepages of springs in the forest can be found also purple crabs (Gecarcoide lalandii) – Christmas Island is the only place in the world where these crabs are blue. Other crabs in forest are little nipper (Geograpsus grayi), yellow nipper (Geograpsus crinipes), the rare white-stripe crab (Labaunium rotundatum).

Unique plants

On the island grow 135 native plant species. At least 18 are not found anywhere else in the world:

• Christmas Island Spleenwort (Asplenium listeri C.Chr.) – fern, rarely found on some inland cliffs. Less than 300 plants are known.
• Sage Orchid (Brachypeza archytas (Ridl.) Garay (1972)) – epiphytic orchid with white flowers, often found on trunks of large trees.
• Flickingeria nativitatis (Ridl.) J.J.Wood – epiphytic orchid with pale yellow flowers, that grows on trees.
• Phreatia listeri Rolfe – epiphytic orchid, growing on trees. Forms clumps, and has tiny, greenish-white flowers.
• Ridley’s Ground Orchid (Zeuxine exilis Ridl., 1906) – terrestrial orchid. Found once in 1904, was considered to be extinct but was rediscovered in 2009.
• Lister’s Palm (Arenga listeri Becc.) – growing on lower terraces closer to the sea.
• Pandanus elatus Ridl. – large tree, up to 20 m tall.
• Pandanus christmatensis Martelli – shrub and tree up to 10 m tall, grows closer to the sea forming thickets.
• Dendrocnide peltata var. murrayana (Rendle) Chew – subspecies of stinging tree. All parts of this tall tree are covered with stinging hairs and touching this plant is very painful.
• Lantern Flower (Abutilon listeri Baker f.) – shrub with nice flowers.
• Grewia insularis Ridl. – shrub or tree, growing on terraces in northern coast of island.
• Columbrina pedunculata Baker f. – shrub with yellow-green flowers.
• Christmas Island Waxvine (Hoya aldrichii Hemsl.) – vine, grows in terraces, closer to the sea. Beautiful, fragrant flowers.
• Zehneria alba Ridl. – small vine, up to 3 m long.
• Asystasia alba Ridl. – herb with white flowers.
• Dicliptera maclearii Hemsl. – herb with pink flowers, grows on lower terraces.
• Peperomia rosii Rendle ex Baker f. – epiphyte, found only once in 1898 and may be extinct now.
• Christmas Island Duch Beak (Ischaemum nativitatis Jansen ex Renvoize) – tall grass, found on some limestone pinnacles.

Unique birds

Island contains six endemic bird species and five subspecies. Endemic birds species are:

• Abbot’s Booby (Papasula abboti Ridgway, 1893). This large seabird occasionally can be met outside Christmas Island, but it lives only here. This large seabird is nesting only in the Christmas Island rainforest, in the central and northern parts of the island. Some 2,500 birds are remaining and the population might be decreasing. There is an ongoing program to protect the emergent trees with nests of boobies from turbulent winds by plantings.
• Christmas Frigatebird (Fregata andrewsi Mathews, 1914) – endangered bird, spending most of his active life in flight and rather often seen above the island, some 1,100 breeding pairs remain.
• Christmas Island Goshawk (Accipter natalis) – predators, curious forest birds.
• Christmas Island Imperial Pigeon (Ducula whartoni) – dark grey pigeons, common birds.
• Christmas Island Hawk Owl (Ninox natalis) – elusive owl, some 1,000 birds remaining.
• Christmas Island White-eye (Zosterops natalis) – originally only in Christmas Island but introduced also in Cocos Islands. A small bird, common.

Other unique animals

On the island are living two species of endemic reptiles and five species of endemic reptiles.

• Christmas Island Shrew (Crocidura trichura) – possibly extinct.
• Christmas Island Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus murrayi) – critically endangered bat, with rapidly decreasing population. Still discussed whether this is separate species.
• Lister’s gecko (Lepidodactylus listeri) – small lizard living on trees. It was considered to be extinct since 1987, but in 2009 there were found geckos in the far southwest. In the summer of 2010, there were 21 geckos.
• Christmas Island Blind Snake (Typhlops exocoeti) – snake, living in forest soil of the central plateau, last seen in 1986.
• Sadlier’s Bow-fingered Gecko (Cyrtodactylus sadlieri) – comparatively common lizard, often found behind bark of trees.
• Christmas Island Whiptail Skink (Emoia nativitatis).
• Blue-tailed Snake-eyed Skink (Cryptoblephanus egeriae) – nice lizard with bright blue tail, found only in the western part of island.

Only here is found butterfly – Christmas Emperor (Polyura andrewsi), mosquito Aedes andrewsi, stick insect Clitumnus stilpnoides, huntsman spider Heteropoda listeri and some other species of insects, spiders, snails.

References

1. National Recovery Plan for Lister’s Gecko Lepidodactylus listeri and the Christmas Island Blind Snake Typhlops exocoeti prepared for the Department of the Environment and Heritage by Dr. Hal Cogger, 2006. Accessed 31.12.10.
2. Christmas Island, Birth of the Island & Geology, ABC TV, Island Life. Accessed 01.01.11.

Christmas Island crab forest is included in the following articles:

Contrary to Ary-Mas Lukunsky is not an isolated island of the forest but a northern rim of enormous forest stretching for hundreds of kilometers to the south.

The sturdy Dahurian larch

There is one tree species in Lukunsky grove – Dahurian larch (Larix gmelinii (Rupr.) Kuzen. 1920).

Dahurian larch is met in an enormous area and in very diverse forms. Often scientists divide it into several species – such as Larix cajanderi, Larix olgensis and many others.

In less harsh conditions Dahurian larch is a large tree, sometimes more than 45 meters tall and above 1,5 meters in diameter. It is possible that this is the most widespread tree species in the world with the largest number of mature trees (1). Dahurian larch grows in the whole of northern Asia, reaching Korea and China in the south. The tree is extremely well adapted to harsh arctic conditions – different investigations have shown excellent adaptations to permafrost, quick regeneration after frequent fires, and unique adaptation to different pests starting from microorganisms and ending with hares.

Wood of the larch is very well adapted also to the needs of northern people. This hard and fragrant wood is very resistant to rotting – thus it serves well for buildings and also for the necessity of Siberian villages – wooden pathways along the streets.

Arctic forest

Winter lasts here for 8 – 9 months, and the polar night lasts from November to February. -35 – -40 °C are common in winter with wind speeds up to 50 meters per second. In flatter areas, the snow is some 0.4 – 0.6 meters thick while in ravines it can be even 10 meters thick. Snow in most parts disappears in the middle of June but in late September – early October winter starts again.

But the short summer often is generous, although rainy. The polar day lasts more than a month from late June to early August. Average temperature in July is 12 °C, but frequently it reaches 30 °C.

Only the upper 0.3 – 2 meters of the soil thaw during the summer. Under the forest, there is approximately 200 meters deep layer of permafrost which is -10 – -15 °C cold (2). Nonetheless, investigations have shown that the biological productivity of the soil here is very high.

Region around Lukunsky grove has been inhabited by several people including Nganasans (more ancient), Evenks and Dolgans (more recent) and now – Russians.

Larches here reach 5 – 7 meters in height, trees are sparse. In spite of its extreme location, the Lukunsky grove is biologically diverse and interesting, although to a lesser extent than Ary-Mas. Here are found 268 species of plants, 78 species of birds, and 16 species of mammals. Species of northern taiga are prevalent over species of tundra.

Besides the only tree – the larch – here grow bushes of several kinds: up to 1.9 m high Alaska willow (Salix alaxensis Cov.), S. boganidensis Trautv., northern willow (S. glauca L.) and several other willows, few species of dwarf birches and dwarf bush Duschekia fruticosa (Rupr.) Pouzar.

Rivers and numerous lakes are full of fish.

Conservation and studies

Just like Ary-Mas also Lukunsky grove is well-studied.

First serious plans to conserve the area appeared in 1939 but were delayed several times up to 1979 when there was established the large state reserve “Taymyrskij” consisting of several separate parts. The main part of the reserve protects the genuine tundra southwest of Taymyr Lake, two separate parts protect the northernmost forest – Ary-Mas and Lukunskij, later there were established two more parts – the Arctic part protecting tundra east of Taymyr Lake and Bykada – a project of the reintroduction of muskox from America. Area of protected areas here might be extended in near future.

Scientists of Taymyrsky reserve maintain a scientific tradition to produce yearly statements of the nature of Taymyr ("Летописи Природы") amounting to many hundreds of pages. Part of this extremely rich scientific material is available (in Russian) on the website of Taymyr reserve.

References

1. The Gymnosperm Database, Larix gmelinii
2. Nature Reserves of Taymyr peninsula
3. Поспелова Е.Б. Сосудистые растения Таймырского заповедника. Серия "Флора и фауна заповедников", вып.66, Moscow, 1998.

Lukunsky grove is included in the following article: