Rare example of monolithic rock-cut buildings

It is not known what was the true purpose of the building of Pancha Rathas. But as the inscription in one of these amazing structures tells, this happened during the times of the great Tamil king Mamalla (Narasimhavarman I, ruled sometimes around 630 – 670 AD).

Rock-cut architecture is not that common in the world and most of it represents caves and passages cut in the rock. Pancha Rathas though belong to the very rare examples where whole buildings with ornate exterior and interior are cut from a live cliff.

Sample collection of Dravidian architecture

The incredibly skilled Indian stonecutters here used a ridge of pink granite and, by removing the "spare" cliff, created a five structures – rathas – and three large monolithic sculptures among these structures.

Structures are named rathas (ritual chariots – temple carts) as somebody in the past thought that they resemble such carts. Pancha rathas in Hindi mean "five chariots". This term, of course, is not correct because these temples are not moveable. Four of these rathas though are arranged in a row – like a procession frozen in stone.

Art historicians speculate that these rathas were created as models of diverse typical South Indian temples. Their architecture most likely is much influenced by the architecture of wooden structures.

All five rathas have very diverse planning, architecture and ornamentation and in a way serve as textbook examples of South Indian temple architecture.

Four rathas have stepped pyramidal roofs.

Each ratha has got interior room – simple and narrow sanctuary (garbha-griha).

Five shrines and three sculptures

It is not known whether Pancha Rathas have ever been used as temples. Most likely they were not consecrated because their stupas are still attached to the bedrock. Many other details are not completed either.

Although the works were not completed, this has not harmed the structures in any way. The local granite has been very sturdy and has survived the test of time very well. It has resisted the constant salty winds from the nearby ocean, as well as a catastrophic tsunami in the 13th century. Tsunami in 2004 here was less pronounced.

Rathas are named after Draupadi and the Pandava brothers – what is not quite correct as these shrines have nothing to do with these characters of Mahabharata. The five rathas are (from north to south):

• Draupadi Ratha
• Arjuna Ratha
• Nakula Sahadeva Ratha
• Bhima Ratha
• Dharmaraja Ratha

Among the rathas are three large sculptures:

• Lion
• Elephant
• Nandi bull

Description of rathas

Draupadi Ratha (Draupati Ratha)

The closest to the entrance gate is Draupadi Ratha – it is also the smallest one.

This shrine is shaped like a thatched hut, with a square roof. It and the nearby Arjuna Ratha are on a single platform – upa-pitham, which also is raised and adorned with figures of lions and elephants.

This shrine is devoted to goddess Durga and it shows in the amazing artwork. Possibly the best of them is a finely carved panel, which shows Durga on a lotus pedestal. Goddess is surrounded by other characters, including a man who is preparing to cut off his head as a sign of devotion.

Outside, above the entrance door, is carved a stylized sea monster. On the eastern wall, there is an interesting sculptural group – Durga standing on the head of Mahishasura – a killed demon.

Some sculptures have not been finished.

Arjuna Ratha

On the same platform is located the next ratha – Arjuna Ratha, which is devoted to Shiva.

This small structure is shaped like a small wooden shrine, once characteristic of Southern India. It is facing towards the east and has two stories, a small portico, and carved pillars.

Inside the shrine there are no adornments, but the exterior is very rich with interesting details.

The facade is adorned with magnificent sculptures, showing gods and humans. Noticeable is a pair of beautiful apsaras with lissom bodies.

Nakula Sahadeva Ratha

This shrine is devoted to Indra and is associated with elephants. This ratha is the only one which is not placed in a "procession", it stands aside. It is also the only one with the entrance facing south.

Ratha represents an apsidal vimana – horseshoe-shaped shrine, it is almost completed.

The roof of this shrine is shaped like the back of an elephant.

One wall of ratha is adorned with a relief sculpture of Ardhanariswara, columns and pillars are adorned with seated lions.

Bhima Ratha

The third shrine in a row is the longest of all rathas – it is 12.8 m long, 7.3 m wide, 7.6 m high. This is Gopura style temple with gabled roof.

Most likely this ratha was devoted to Anantshayi Vishnu.

The larger size of ratha can be explained by a large barelief of Vishnu in the form of Sayanamurti, which is located inside. It remains unfinished.

The sanctuary of this structure has a circumabulatory passage around it.

Pillars of the shrine are adorned with figures of lions.

Dharmaraja Ratha (Dharmaraja Yudhistar’s Ratha)

This ratha is shaped like a characteristic vimana (tower above the shrine) of Southern India of its times. This structure was abandoned before the completion but nevertheless it the most magnificent and tallest of all rathas, with three storeys.

The shrine is devoted to Shiva and is adorned with one of the best examples of early Pallava plastic art with important innovations in the art. Very beautiful are the Shiva figures on the corners of structure.

Dharmaraja Ratha contains an inscription in Pallava – Grantha script – it records the titles of Narasimhavarman I. Inscription mentions also that this was created as Shiva temple of Atyantakama Pallava.

Columns and pilasters of this ratha are adorned with lions.

The ground (first) floor of Dharmaraja Ratha is completed – it contains eight decorative panels.

Especially interesting and attractive is a panel, which shows Shiva reincarnation named Ardhanariswarar – half man, half women.

Small premises have been hewn in the other two floors of ratha as well. There are no stairs leading to the second floor, but the second and third floor are connected with stairs.

Animal statues

Among the rathas stand three large sculptures of animals – all carved out of monolithic stone. It is amazing tha all three statues are symbolically linked to certain rathas, thus complementing this unique ensemble of monolithic structures.

Statue of Nandi bull is not finished. This figurine is linked to Arjuna Ratha – shrine of Shiva.

Sculpture of lion is some 2 m high. It is located in the front of Draupadi Ratha – as it is normally placed in other temples which are devoted to Durga.

Elephant stands next to Nakula Sahadeva Ratha which is devoted to Indra – a deity owning the sacred white elephants.

Pancha Rathas of Mahabalipuram are included in the following article:

Himalayan pyramids

Sometimes in the 8th or 9th century – but most likely in the second half of the 8th century – one of the characteristic sandstone ridges in Kangri valley was reshaped in a miraculous way.

Unknown sculptors cleaved away the sandstone revealing 15 (earlier sources mention 19) steep-sided pyramids – sikharas, covered with intricate stone carvings.

Thanks to the favorable local topography – steep rock ridge – Masroor Temples rise above the surrounding landscape like ordinary structures. From the temple complex opens a fine view of Dhauladhar ranges and the Beas valley.

In the front of this group of pyramids was hewn almost 50 m long, rectangular water tank – gan. This is an important part of this architectonic complex, almost always filled with water and mirroring the amazing temple complex.

Pioneer of Nagara architecture style?

Such free-standing structures cut from live stone are rare in India (and in the whole world) and are unique in the Himalayas. The only two other comparable (but less impressive) examples of such type of rock-cut temples in the northern part of India are Dharmanath temple near Dhamnar in Rajasthan and Thal temple in Uttar Pradesh.

Art historians have identified that sculptures in the Masroor temples have been shaped in late Gupta style, most likely in the second half of the 8th century. There are no known inscriptions in the temple and no written accounts about this temple – thus it is rather a guess.

The design and planning of the temples represent an early (possibly – the earliest) example of Nagara style in architecture. This is a very important style in Hindu temple architecture, with characteristic beehive-formed towers.

Shrine of Shiva and Rama

The 15 temples form a single group with a larger temple – Thakurdwara shrine – in the center. 14 temples are cut only from the outside, but Thakurdwara – also from the inside.

All temples are (or were) covered with intricate stone carvings of high quality but the most elaborate carvings adorn Thakurdwara.

The entrance in this central temple is facing east. The entrance part has four massive columns. Further entrance in the main shrine – garb-griha – leads through especially ornate stone door. Inside the shrine are black stone images of Lord Rama, Sita, and Laxmana. In the center, though stands a figure of Shiva.

Art historians consider that initially this temple was dedicated to Mahadeva (Shiva) and after an ancient earthquake was reshaped into a shrine of Rama.

European discovery of temples

Local people in Kangri Valley, of course, knew about these amazing structures but only in 1875 did Europeans learn about them as well. Few Europeans managed to visit this remote corner of India – only in 1913 H.L.Shuttleworth noted that these pyramidal temples are hewn out of live rock. The first more or less thorough description of these temples was published only 1915 by H. Hargreaves.

Destruction by nature

Kangra valley experienced an extremely powerful earthquake in 1905. Wonderful Masroor Temples suffered heavily and partly turned into ruins. Debris of the temples still lies around them.

Slower but not less destructive has been the erosion by weather and vegetation. Step by step the wonderful carvings have eroded, leaving a boring, flat surface.

Conservation and religion

Already in 1914 temples became a national monument and now it is considered to include them in the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage sites.

Heritage institutions have done much to preserve and renew this amazing structure.

Unfortunately there is a divide between cultural heritage protection institutions and local people regarding access to the temple. Local people would love to use this amazing structure as intended – as a Hindu temple, but heritage institutions need to raise the cash and are charging the ticket price from everyone. Only two days per year – in the important festivities of Ram Navami and Janamashtmi – local people can access the temple for free.

Nowadays the temples can be reached by car but this area nevertheless is remote and rather little visited.

Masroor Rock Cut Temples are included in the following article:

Often the description of Kanheri Caves starts with the statement that there should not be expected “other Elephanta Caves” or Taj Mahal. This is true – Elephanta Caves and Taj Mahal have absolutely different qualities. Kanheri Caves though have their own charm and most certainly – a lot more history embedded in the cliffs and a lot more influence left on the art of Asia.

Secret of suburban jungle

Word Kanheri most likely originates from Sanskrit word Krishnagiri – where Krishna means “black”.

This could be explained by the fact that caves were carved in a large outcrop of dark basalt in the forest of Sanjay Gandhi National Park. This ancient forest has a long and rich history of preservation. In spite of the enormous city of Mumbai encircling it from three sides, the forest hosts numerous rare species including even leopards – sometimes attacking stray visitors of the park. An additional wonder of this area is created by Karvy shrub (Strobilanthes callosus (Nees)) – once per 8 years hillsides of Kanheri are covered with bright purple flowers of this plant, full of exotic butterflies. During the rainy season, several beautiful waterfalls form in Kanheri hills.

The closest rim of this forest is 2 kilometers from caves. The path to the caves though is 5 km long – but it is well worth walking it and diving into the beauty of the forest and expectation of historical gem to be learned. Kanheri caves are reached by an impressive, long flight of steps cut in the slope of basalt.

The highest caves are located up to 460 m above sea level and there opens a panoramic view over the forest and distant blocks of apartments in Mumbai. In fact, the outskirts of Mumbai are rich with slums as well.

Abode of Buddhist traders

Already by the 4th century BC through the ancient forest there was leading a path between two busy ports – Sopara and Kalyan. Somewhat later this route was actively used by the first Buddhists known also as active traders – in fact, Kanheri Caves are signaling about the coming of Buddhism in this area.

Obviously, the long route and overnight stay in the middle of the forest endangered the traders. The establishment of first settlements in the middle of the forest, in dark Kanheri cliffs most likely was taken as a relief.

In the 1st century BC early Buddhist monks – bhiksus – established in Kanheri tiny rock-cut cells cut in the side of the hill – each with a stone splint which served as a bed. They gathered initially in larger cells and then – in congregation hall with massive stone pillars and stupa. Most likely most of them did not stay permanently here but this location already served as an inn for travelers. Also, the caves were simple and plain – as the mainstream Hinayana tradition required it.

Further up the hill, there was carved an ingenious system for storing water, consisting of canals and cisterns collecting the rainwater into large tanks.

As the community of monks grew and more and more people were living here permanently, the carving of caves became more sophisticated. Times changed and images of Buddha became popular, walls of earlier ascetic rock-cut shrines were lavishly adorned with reliefs of Buddha and Bodhisattvas.

Still, most of the caves have remained strict and ascetic up to this day.

By the 3rd century AD Kanheri was an important and influential Buddhist settlement, patronized by local rulers as testified by inscriptions on the walls of caves. Large and sophisticated works were performed by the late 5th – early 6th century when most of the famed artworks of Kanheri were created. By the times of the Mauryan and Kushan empires, Kanheri was a University center and the largest rock-cut cave complex in India. In the late 10th century here came Tibetan and Sumatran Buddhist teacher Atisha, he stayed in Krishnagiri Vihara and studied Buddhist meditation under Rahulagupta.

Description of caves

A major part of 109 caves of Kanheri are simple cells cut in basalt – viharas – cells for monks where they lived, studied, meditated. Few larger cells though are chaityas – halls for congregational worship. One of the chaityas still contains defaced woodwork on its roof.

The largest and best-known monument of Kanheri – large chaitya, Cave 3 – was shaped in the late 2nd – 6th century AD. This was the latest chaitya of the Hinayana branch. It is adorned with two giant, up to 7 m high figures of standing Buddhas on each side of the entrance porch. It is considered that exactly with these statues of Buddha in the 6th century there started a tradition to create colossal statues of Buddha – this tradition spread over Asia and continues up to this day. The main hall of this cave is 28 m long and 13 m wide, it is adorned with 34 columns with a 5 m high stupa at the far end. Columns are adorned with elephants kneeling and worshipping the Stupa. Chaitya is adorned also with mithunas – love pairs characteristic for the art of the Kushan period.

At some time in the 16th – 17th century, a Franciscan friar Fr. Antonio de Porto converted some monks of Kanheri to Christianity. In this period Cave 3 was converted into a Christian chapel dedicated to St.Michael. No signs of this makeover remain today.

Cave 11 (The Durbar Hall or the Assembly Hall) contains a statue of Buddha occupying the central place of the shrine. The cave contains also cells for monks.

Cave 34 contains paintings of Buddha on the ceiling.

Depiction of Avalokitesvara from Kanheri is especially famed – in Cave 41 this Bodhisattva is shown with eleven heads. This weird sculpture symbolically shows that 10 Bodhisattva heads lead to the final one – Buddha head thus symbolizing gradual ascent to enlightenment.

Verandah of Cave 67 is adorned with a relief depicting Avalokitesvara flanked by two female figures.

Cave 90 is famed due to the oldest preserved mandala shaped in the early 6th century AD.

It is also believed that the gradually evolving art of ancient Kanheri caves has influenced the shape of magnificent Elephanta Caves nearby.

Inscriptions

Caves contain numerous inscriptions – 51 legible and 26 epigraphs, many writings still are waiting for somebody to decipher them and to find an explanation for the deciphered text. Ancient inscriptions in the Brahmi script might be contemporaries of the great emperor Ashoka and his attempts to introduce Buddhism in India.

Important inscriptions were found on copper plates – they testify that the dynasty of Traikutas had a significant influence in this part of India up to 533 AD at least. A valuable copper plate is in British Museum – it contains a Sanskrit inscription with the genealogy of the Shilahara dynasty. In total there are known 18 such copper plates from Kanheri.

Three inscriptions in Cave 90 have been written in Pahlavi. These have been left by Persian travelers who visited Kanheri twice in 1009 and once in 1021 – this means that caves were well known also in the 11th century.

One inscription is significant historically as it tells about the marriage of Satavahana ruler Vashishtiputra Satakarni with the daughter of the ruler Rudradaman I. This marriage did not help to prevent the expansion of Western Kshatrapas and the decline of the Satavahana Empire.

Inscription in cave 21 refers to caves as “Krishna-saila”, cave 98 – “Kanha Shele”, cave 101 – “Krishnagiri”.

References

1. A Note on Inscriptions in Bombay, Maharashtra State Gazetteers, visited in the 23rd April 2010.

Kanheri Caves are included in the following articles:

Some of the caves here are natural but most were carved by Jain monks during the reign of King Kharavela. These rock-cut caves belong to the earliest Jain rock-cut temples. Art in Udayagiri and Khandagiri has many similarities to the contemporaneous art in Sanchi.

Archaeologists have numbered caves, but nearly all have also individual names.

Hathigumpha inscription

Hathigumpha inscription is valuable evidence left by Kharavela, king of Kalinga (around 209 – after 170 BC), in the 1st century BC. Kharavela was the greatest emperor of Kalinga – ancient Odisha. He was subdued by the great Mauryan king Ashoka. Kharavela was inclining towards Jainism, but also very liberal regarding religious questions.

Hathigumpha inscription is the main source of information about the reign of this king. The inscription was incised over the entrance of Hathi Gumpha and consists of 17 lines of deep incised Brahmi script. The famous rock incisions of Ashoka at Dhauli are located only 9.5 kilometers southeast of Udayagiri – incisions of both great kings are facing each other.

The inscription was discovered by A.Stirling in 1820 who copied it and published it. This publication was used by James Princep to provide the first attempt to decipher the inscription in the 1830s. Authentic deciphering of inscription took place in 1885 and was performed by historian Bhagwan Lal Indraji – but numerous mistakes in the inscription and natural deformations have left space for interpretations and controversies.

The inscription starts with the fundamental mantra of Jains – Namokar Mantra. Then it goes about the life and deeds of King Kharavela, “the worshipper of all religious orders, the repairer of all shrines of gods.

As Ashoka took over the possessions of Kharavela, previously favored Jain religion gradually gave a place to Buddhism.

Other inscriptions

Besides the important Hathigumpha inscription there are several more inscriptions in Brahmi, in total 9 – 11 of these have been deciphered. These inscriptions tell about the patrons of separate caves – for the most part, high-ranked people of royal descent.

Caves of Udayagiri

The caves in Udayagiri are somewhat better known due to several important monuments of history and art:

• Rani Gumpha (Cave 1, Rani ka Naur, Queen’s Cave, Queen’s Palace Cave) is a double storeyed monastery. The frontal face of the lower floor has 7 entrance doors, while the upper floor – 9 columns. The cave contains exquisite carvings and sculpted friezes depicting women dancing and playing musical instruments, also royal people in splendor, rampaging elephants, monkeys. Famous due to its exceptional acoustic characteristics. It is possible that the cave was used for chants and theatre performances, most likely – for the Samaja celebration. The cave contains also the image of Surya riding a chariot.
• Bajaghara Gumpha (Cave 2) – cave with two massive built columns in front part, also inner columns are built, e.g. not carved of live rock.
• Chota Hathi Gumpha (Cave 3, Small Elephant Cave) – contains exquisite relief with elephants in both sides of front door.
• Alkapuri Gumpha (Cave 4) – double storeyed, part of columns is built. Contains sculpted ornaments and sculptures. Capitels of rock-cut pillars contain exquisite reliefs depicting elephants, some winged creatures, people.
• Jaya-vijaya Gumpha (Cave 5) – double storied cave, some columns are rock-cut, some built.
• Panasa Gumpha (Cave 6). Simple cell with two built columns. Near this cave is another shelter with ochre paintings.
• Thakurani Gumpha (Cave 7). Double storeyed cave, where some columns are rock-cut, some – built. Contains relief carving with winged animals.
• Patalapuri Gumpha (Cave 8) – roughly cut cave with two columns at verandah. Capitels of columns adorned with reliefs depicting winged beings.
• Mancapuri Gumpha (Cave 9, Sargapuri – Manchapuri Gumpha) – double storeyed cave. Lower floor has four columns. Several sculptures and reliefs, inscriptions.
• Ganesa Gumpha (Cave 10) famous due to stone carvings. Contains two dwelling cells with low ceilings and a verandah with a bench in front. Famous relief of Ganesh on the rear wall was carved somewhat later – in this later time there were added large sculptures of two elephants in front of cave. Interesting scene with people in action, inscription. Contains also a carving with Jain Tirthankara.
• Jambesvara Gumpha (Cave 11, Jamesvara Gumpha) – low cell with two plain door-openings, entrance has one column and two pilasters. Inscription tells that this was the cave of Nakyia, wife of Mahamade.
• Vyaghra Gumpha (Cave 12, Bagha Gumpha, Bagh Gumpha) – unusual, small cave temple – entrance part is shaped like enormous head of some animal with the entrance door in the place of throat. Entrance portal is adorned with arched element, to the right from it – telling that this was cave of town-judge Sabhuti.
• Sarpa Gumpha (Cave 13) – unusual, small cave with adornment above the entrance.
• Hathi Gumpha (Cave 14, Elephant’s Cave, Hati Gumpha, Hatigumpha, in Orya – ହାତିଗୁଂଫା) – contains carved chronicles of King Kharavela’s reign – the famous Hathi Gumpha inscription. Hathi Gumpha is natural cavern supplemented with artificial structures – like columns of verandah. Besides the Hathi Gumpha inscription there are other pictograms and symbols drawn, including a footprint.
  In the front of Hathi Gumpha there is very unusual monument – hollowed boulder with entrance doors and windows.
• Dhanaghara Gumpha (Cave 15) – entrance with two massive (unfinished?) columns, adorned with sculpture of door keeper.
• Haridasa Gumpha (Cave 16, Haridas Gumpha) – roughly cut cave, verandah with one column. Contains inscription.
• Jagammath Gumpha (Cave 17, Jagannatha Gumpha) – roughly cut cave.
• Rosai Gumpha (Cave 18, Rasoi Gumpha) – small cave with single entrance.

Udayagiri contains also the fundament of some structure – the floor is laid with leveled blocks of stone, in the stone hewn post holes.

Caves of Khandagiri

Khandagiri hill contains somewhat less caves. Jain caves in Khandagiri are increasingly encroached by local Brahmins turning them into Hindu shrines.

• Tatowa Gumpha (Cave 1) – got the name from depiction of parrots carved above the entrance arch. Cave is richly decorated, adorned with two door-keepers as well. Both entrances in the cells in turn are “guarded” by two bulls and two lions.
• Tatowa Gumpha No.2 (Cave 2) – veranda adorned with pilasters, capitels of pilasters contain exquisite carvings.
• Ananta Gumpha (Cave 3) – contains exquisite sculptures of women, elephants, athletes, geese carrying flowers.
• Tentuli Gumpha (Cave 4) – smaller rock-cut chamber, verandah has one column. Entrances in shrones adorned with portals.
• Khandagiri Gumpha (Cave 5) – double storeyed, roughly cut cave.
• Dhyana Gumpha (Cave 6) – roughly cut cell.
• Navamuni Gumpha (Cave 7) – roughly cut cell, rear wall adorned with Jain Thirtankaras, Sasana Devis and Ganesh.
• Barabhuji Gumpha (Cave 8) – adorned with Jain Thirtankaras and Sasana Devis. Rock-cut footprints.
• Trusula Gumpha (Cave 9)
• Ambika Gumpha (Cave 10)
• Lalatendukesari Gumpha (Cave 11, Lalatendu Keshari Cave) – rear wall adorned with reliefs of Mahavira, Parsvanatha, Jain Thirtankaras.
• Unknown name (Cave 12)
• Unknown name (Cave 13) – rather an overhang – possibly some columns or walls destroyed.
• Ekadasi Gumpha (Cave 14) – simple cell.
• Unknown name (Cave 15)

References

1. Hathigumpha inscription, JatLand.com. Contains full text of Hathigumpha inscription in Devanagari and English. Accessed in the 21st April 2010.
2. Udayagiri Complex, Indira Gandhi National Centre of Arts. Contains numerous images. Accessed in the 22nd April 2010.

Udayagiri Caves and Khandagiri Caves is included in the following lists and articles:

There were created several groups of stylistically similar, important early Buddhist rock-cut temples along the ancient trade route from Arabian Sea to Deccan region – Karla Caves, Bedse Caves and also the Bhaja Caves.

Bhaja caves are cut in steep cliff face 120 m above the surrounding plain, all looking to the west.

Bhaja Caves are famed due to their ornate facades. It is believed that this ancient architecture is influenced by even older cave temples – Barabar Caves. Many elements hint that stone cutters copied the elements of ancient wooden architecture.

Stone carvings in Bhaja caves are not very deep, the style is similar to one of the molded terracottas. Sculptures in Bhaja have elaborate headdresses, garlands, and jewelry. It is possible that initially these sculptures were covered with plaster and painted in bright colors.

As is characteristic of early Buddhism, the religious art of caves is characterized by a symbolic representation of Buddha. Sculptures from later times, created after the 4th century AD though present Buddha in his physical forms as well – thus the largest shrine contains paintings of Buddha.

The chaityagriha

The most impressive is Cave No 12 – a shrine, chaitya. The entrance in this temple belongs to the most photographed monuments in the region – the sight of this enormous, ornate horseshoe arch has no look-alikes. This is also the earliest known large chaitya – chaityagriha (chaityagrha) – in Indian rock-cut caves, although its architecture shows that there existed comparable wooden buildings.

Entrance in this cave temple is completely open now – but in earlier times there was a wooden facade below the arch. The facade imitates fine woodwork and is adorned with human figures leaning over balconies creating an impression of the abundance of life.

The hall behind the facade is roughly 17 m x 8 m large (diverse sources show slightly different values), up to 8.8 m high. 27 octagonal pillars divide it into aisles and allow circumabulatory passage around the stupa. These pillars lean inwards thus imitating wooden structures.

On the top there were added wooden ribs further imitating a freestanding wooden building – these 2,200 years old wooden details are the oldest wooden structural elements here. Wooden beams contain inscriptions left by the benefactors of the temple.

Chaitya contains stupa at its far end with a diameter of 3.45 m, with a hole in the top for a wooden umbrella.

Other caves

Most of the caves in Bhaja are viharas – ancient Buddhist monasteries. Seven caves contain inscriptions informing about their benefactors, such as an inscription left by Maharathi Kosikiputi Vihnudata in the 2nd century AD.

An interesting and somewhat mysterious monument is an irregular excavation some 50 meters from the great chaitya. It contains a group of rock-cut stupas. 5 of these stupas are located inside a rock-cut chamber and 9 – are outside. It is identified as a cemetery. Some stupas are inscribed with the names of sthaviras – early orthodox Buddhists.

One of the last caves to the south, vihara (Cave No. 18.) contains a rectangular hall with a front pillared verandah. This vihara contains two cells – one at the back and one – on the right side. Pillars have a square base and top and octagonal middle part.

The verandah of cave No.18. contains some of the most interesting sculptural groups in Bhaja, such as:

• A royal person with two woman attendants, driving a chariot by four horses, trampling some demonish figure. Some consider that the royal figure is Sun god Surya vanquishing the demon of darkness – then it is the oldest depiction of this deity.
• A deity – identified as Indra – driving an elephant with attendants carrying a banner and spear. Also, this could be the oldest known depiction of Indra.

Additional beauty to this area is added by a small waterfall with a pool below it. It is located south of the caves and has water during the monsoon period.

References

1. Bhaja Caves, Bhaja. Archaeological Survey of India. Was accessed on April 10, 2010, now not active.
2. Benoy K. Behl., Grandeur of caves. Frontline, Vol 24, Sep.22 – Oct.05, 2005. Accessed on July 11, 2018.
3. Bhaja Caves. Bharatonline.com. Accessed on April 10, 2010.

Bhaja Caves are included in the following lists:

Temples of traders

The rock-cut temple chambers north of the present-day Karla town belong to the oldest cave temples of India. These amazing caves were started by ancient Buddhists more than 2,000 years ago: carbon-14 dating, inscriptions, and architecture style indicate that the oldest cave here has been created sometime around 120 BC, during the Satavahana dynasty.

In these times ancient trade route was leading from the Arabian sea into the Deccan, along Lenauli – present-day Lonavali, located between South and North India. Buddhists in these times were known as successful traders and manufacturers and along the trade routes there appeared their temples.

Early Buddhist temples were located in natural areas – away from cities to avoid the distraction of the material world but not too far from inhabited places – to keep contact with people. These temples provided lodging for traveling traders, serving as an important location for rest, safety, exchange of information, and even – as early banks.

Temples carved in the natural cliff were especially well suited for Indian conditions and prescriptions of Buddhists – they were cool in summer, pleasant in winter, and spiritually were part of nature.

It is believed that in the 2nd century BC – mid 2nd century AD there were carved thousands of caves in Sahyadri Hills (Western Ghats) for all Buddhist communities.

Part of Karla Caves have been created later – in the 5th – 10th centuries AD.

Ancient technologies

First sacred Karla Cave was a natural cave but soon there followed man-made caves.

The rugged, coarse trapp is far from being the easiest material to work with, but ancient Indians proved that determination and acuteness work wonders. Such work was not done by self-denying and enlightened Buddhist monks – just like today, it was performed by well-organized teams of professionals and most often paid by authorities.

Karla Caves were built in especially hard circumstances – in the difficult terrain of a rocky hillside. Such caves were built from the top downwards. Initially, the hillside was cleared of vegetation and debris. Then there was made a pair of tunnels inside the rock up to the desired depth. Timber wedges were driven vertically in the rock and moistened. As the wood expanded, the cliff was fractured, forming large chunks of rock. This rock was carefully removed and the exposed walls of the cave chamber leveled and polished. After the main body of the rock was removed, more exquisite sculpting was done.

Temple builders did unbelievably magnificent and sophisticated work – leaving columns and other structural elements at exact distances and proportions and carving some of the most beautiful ancient sculptures of the world in situ. Hundreds of sculptures.

Architecture and art

Karla Caves represent the highest achievement of Indian rock-cut architecture of the time and are one of the earliest examples of ornate and richly decorated rock-cut temples in India. In splendour these caves can be compared to Ajanta and Ellora but are much less popular – thus visit here is pleasant due to less crowds.

Part of the caves is accessible by climbing 350 steps cut in the rock at the time when temples were built – tourists often are without breath after this hefty climb. Construction workers moved here not only themselves but many tons of stones – doing it carefully, without damaging the exquisite carvings and leveled surfaces.

The earlier caves were made by the more ancient branch of Buddhists – Theravada Buddhists. Back then images of Buddha were not used in temple architecture. Later – Mahayana Buddhist temples from the 5th to the 10th century – include statues of Buddha. The architecture of earlier cave temples in many respects repeats the elements and construction of wooden architecture.

According to their use Indian Buddhist cave temples can be divided in chaityas – sanctuaries and viharas – a kind of monasteries. Chaityas – halls used for congregational worship, had more exquisite architecture. Viharas often were lavishly adorned as well, they contained austere cells cut into walls of the central hall – here lived monks.

Karla Caves are characterized by large horseshoe-shaped windows lighting the interiors and vaulted interiors.

Sculptures of Karla mark new tendencies in Indian art – more plasticity, figures are approximately 60% free of the wall behind them. Sculptures are refined, with folds of clothing, earrings, etc.

The architectural and artistic achievements made in Karla Caves have left a profound impact on the development of Indian art.

Most magnificent chaitya

Caves contain enormous chaitya – the largest and possibly the most beautiful among the more than 1,000 cave temples in India, carved in the 1st century BC. Sometimes this cave temple is considered to be the highest achievement of Indian cave architecture.

This 45 m long and up to 14 m high chaitya has a beautiful façade with numerous sculptures on both sides of the central doorway and rich, intricate artwork and structural elements inside, often imitating woodwork. The stone carvings depict people, lions, and elephants – and it is believed that sculptures of elephants in the central hall originally had tusks of genuine ivory. Frequent element is mithuna – women and man in pairs. Walls originally were covered with murals.

Important role is played also by the light coming in through the large window – the softened sunlight adds a different flavor to exquisite sculptures and architectural details.

At the entrance of this chaithya stands a 15 m high pillar with exquisite capital adorned with lions. Earlier there was one more pillar. The site of this another pillar nowadays is taken by a temple of another religion – it is devoted to Hindu goddess Ekveera and visited by thousands of pilgrims every year. Often this temple and pilgrimage is seen as an encroachment of Hindu religion on Buddhist shrine.

Rows of pillars divide the chaitya into three parts – central hall and narrow side aisles, divided by two rows of ornate pillars – 15 pillars in each row. Pillars have beautiful capitals, which, among others, include also a representation of men and women riding elephants and bowing to Buddha. Representations of Buddha have been added around the 7th century AD.

Contrary to some other cave temples, the ceiling in Karla Cave No. 12 has wooden ribs and not stone ribs. This woodwork (chhatri) is unique – wood has been cut 2,000 years ago and has been preserved rather well, without signs of corrosion.

Far end of chaitya contains the shrine – stupa with an umbrella over it.

References

1. Indian-Visit.com, Karla Caves, accessed in 30 March 2010.
2. Travelmasti.com, Karla Caves, accessed in 30 March 2010.
3. Asian Art and Architecture: Art & Design 382/582. Lecture 7. Later Andhra Period India, accessed in 30 March 2010.
4. Sudhir.in, Cave: Karla-Lonavala, Pune, Maharashtra, accessed in 31 March 2010.

Karla Caves is included in the following list:

Great kingdom needed outstanding sanctuaries. Badami Chalukyas built Badami Cave Temples – some of the most exquisite Indian rock-cut temples.

The water flowing from the ravine in Badami is gathered in an ancient artificial lake – Agastya tirtha reservoir. High above the water, there are towering cliffs of comparatively soft sandstone. Royal shrines were made in these cliffs with a grand view opening over the former capital city.

The four cave temples of Badami were built by the son of Pulakesi I – Kirthivarman (ruled in 567 – 598 AD) and his brother Mangalesha I (ruled in 598 – 610 AD).

One cave is devoted to Shiva, two – to Vishnu. The fourth cave is the Jain temple. Thus Chalukyas, just like several other successful dynasties of Ancient India, demonstrated religious tolerance.

Although in many respects these structures repeat the architecture of similar Indian cave temples created before, there is noticeable also the development of distinct style in architecture and art – Chalukyan style. Art of Badami shows influence both of South Indian styles (Dravidian style) and northern influences (Indo-Aryan Nagara style).

Badami Cave Temples have a simple exterior but their interiors have a very ornate finishing. The entrance leads through a pillared verandah – mukha mandapa, pillars have the square form in section. Three caves are adorned with a lavish frieze below the columns. The main hall of each temple – maha mandapa – is standing on massive columns. The furthest part of the temple behind the main hall is the shrine – cella or garbhagrha. Most likely caves were covered with exciting murals – only traces of this former beauty remain.

An important feature of Badami Caves and their surroundings is ancient inscriptions in Kannada writing and in Kannada and Sanskrit languages. In total, in Badami, there have been found 18 cliff inscriptions. The oldest is from 543 AD.

One of the most important inscriptions is made in 700 AD at the northeast end of the reservoir. It consists of ten lines in Kannada writing, both in Kannada and Sanskrit languages. This inscription is not completely clearly translated but it is clear that it goes about Kappe Arahatta, a local saint and hero. Under the inscription, there is a nice carving of ten leaved loti in a circle.

There exists also the fifth cave in Badami – a natural cave used as a Buddhist temple. It can be entered only on all fours. The area contains also many other temples.

Cave 1

This cave most likely is the oldest – it was constructed in 575 – 585 AD.

The entrance portal can be reached by 40 steps and contains four freestanding square columns and two semi-columns. Below the columns there is a frieze with ganas – attendants of Shiva.

The main hall contains pillars and a square-shaped shrine at the back wall. The ceiling is adorned with murals of amorous couples miraculously preserved for more than 1,400 years.

The cave is adorned with exquisite reliefs, the most impressive ones include a group with Shiva and Parvati with a coiled serpent as well as a unique monument of art – 18 armed Nataraja, which, when closely observed, strikes 81 dancing poses.

Cave 2

Created in the late 6th century AD and dedicated to Vishnu who is shown here as Trivikrama – with one foot on Earth and another – directed to the north. Vishnu in this temple is represented also as Varaha (boar) and Krishna avatars.

The cave is reached by climbing 64 steps from the first cave. The entrance is adorned with reliefs of guardians (dvarapalas) with smaller female attendants shown.

Cave 3

The largest and most renowned cave temple in Badami most likely is created in 578 – 580 AD. The cave contains an inscription by later Chalukya king Mangalesa in Kannada – he organized an excavation of this Vaishnava temple. The inscription has been made in 578 AD, Mangalesa became a king in 597 and ruled until 609 AD. It is common that Indian cave temples were patronized by influential members of royal families.

The rock-cut temple has a north-south orientation. The main hall together with verandah goes up to 14.5 m deep into the mountain, shrine makes the cave some 4 m deeper. The height of the main hall is approximately 4.5 m.

The cave is reached by climbing 60 steps from Cave 2. The facade of the temple is approximately 21 m wide and is adorned with a row of six massive columns. Below the columns, there is a frieze consisting of 30 smaller reliefs of ganas.

The whole cave is covered with magnificent adornments, including paintings on the ceiling. The centerpiece of these murals is four-armed Brahma on his swan. On the floor below the mural of Brahma, there is a lotus medallion – a place where offerings were laid.

Significant monuments of Indian art are the numerous reliefs of Vishnu including standing Vishnu, Vishnu with a serpent, Vishnu as Narasimha (half human – half lion), Varaha, Harihara, and Trivikrama avatars. Reliefs are 4 m high.

Art in cave 3 provides important information about the culture and clothing in this region in the 6th century.

Cave 4

This is the only Jain temple in the complex and the newest cave in the complex, made in the late 6th century – 7th century AD. It is located higher than other caves. If compared to the three previous caves, this cave is less elaborate and smaller – but still beautiful and rich with adornment. It contains a carving of the Tirthankara Parshavnatha with a serpent at his feet. Here is located also a sculpture of Jain saint Mahavira in seated pose (often mistaken for Buddha) and standing Gomatesvara with creepers twisted around his legs.

References

1. Badami (Western Chalukya), Old Stones: The Monuments of Art History. Last accessed – 11th July 2018.
2. Early perfection., Frontline, India’s National Magazine. Dec 08-21, 2007. Last accessed – 11th July 2018.

Badami Cave Temples are included in the following lists and articles:

Nobody knows for sure when and by whom these amazing monuments have been created. Whole caves with pillars and the beautiful artwork were made as giant sculptures – by a precise carving of the solid basalt and removing it.

Small island with ancient cave temples

Elephanta Island is located in the silted Thane Creek, surrounded by the busy everyday life of the Mumbai Harbour. The island is roughly 10 km² large at high tide and approximately 16 km² large at low tide, approximately 2.4 km long. Deep ravine goes from the north to south through the island with basaltic trap hills on both sides rising up to 173 m high. Three small, densely built-up villages are located closer to the shores of the island but for the most part, the island has preserved the rural landscape. The whole island is the UNESCO World Heritage Monument. Gharapuri is also the older, local version of the name of Elephanta island – although an even older version was Agraharpuri.

Two groups of rock-cut cave temples are located on an island – five Hindu caves and two Buddhist caves. Hindu caves are located more to the west, while the high hill to the east from the ravine contains a brick stupa on top and two Buddhist caves with few rock-cut cisterns.

Caves were hewn in solid basalt – hard work even for contemporary tools. Initially, caves were painted in bright colors – now the paint is gone and only traces of it remain.

Early history

Architectonic features of Elephanta cave chambers and their details suggest that cave chambers were made in the time period between the 5th – 8th centuries AD. Earlier there existed an inscription in the caves or near them informing about the builder of caves – but it has been lost later, during the Portuguese times.

Popular legend states that caves were definitely not built by people but rather by mythical beings: either by Pandavas – legendary heroes of Mahabharata or by Banasura – a very powerful demon.

Archaeological investigations have resulted in a find of few Kshatrapa coins from the 4th century AD – but this does not directly mean that caves have been made in this time.

One likely creator of caves is Konkan Mauryas – a break-away group of the Mauryan dynasty. Elephanta by that time was called Puri or Purika and was a capital city. Thus it is possible that caves were shaped in the middle of the 6th century by Mauryas. This is put in doubt by some researchers – Mauryan state at this time seemed to be not that powerful and influential to create such an amazing monument. It is also possible that caves were built by early Kalachuri kings – they were feudal to Konkan Mauryas. Both Kalachuris and Konkan Mauryas were followers of a Pahsupata Shaivism sect – and also the main cave temple in Elephanta is dedicated to this sect.

In 635 AD Badami Chalukyas under the great emperor Pulakesi II defeated Konkan Mauryas in a naval battle. It is possible that Chalukyas took an active part in the development of the main cave in the middle of the 7th century as well. Later throughout the centuries, the island was owned by different rulers and most likely temple activities continued as well.

Portuguese rule and newer times

Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was the last indigenous ruler of Elephanta Island before Mumbai and its surroundings were appropriated by the Portuguese in 1534. Portuguese named the island Elephanta after an impressive sculpture of elephant made in black stone. Back then this sculpture was standing on the mound to the east from Gharapuri village. Elephant collapsed in 1814 and was brought to Victoria Gardens and reassembled. Now it is located in Jijamata Udyaan zoo in Mumbai.

Portuguese rule was disastrous for Elephanta. The population on the island declined and the island became forested. After thousand years long worship the Shiva temples in caves were abandoned as well. The only religious event which has survived to this day and is related to ancient cave temples is the festival of Shiva – Maha Shivaratri. Even worse – the Portuguese used the beautiful sculptures in ancient cave temples for target practice. Most of the statues were heavily damaged.

In 1661 the island became a part of the British Empire but cave temples remained abandoned. Time did its work – water found new paths through the cliff, gradually eliminating the achievements of ancient art. As the popularity of non-European art raised, many valuable details perished in private collections and gradually lost the track of their history.

After long years of neglect, the Great Cave was renovated several times throughout the 20th century, notably in the 1970s. Unfortunately, the other caves, including three caves with important sculptures, are badly damaged. In 1987 Elephanta Caves were declared as UNESCO World Heritage site.

The Great Cave

This beautiful cave temple (named also Cave 1, Shiva Cave, Mahesha-Murti Cave) is located on the hillside and is facing the ocean. The floor area of this cave is 5.600 m², it goes 39 m deep into the basalt cliff. This cave is extremely rich with enormous, beautiful sculptures, some of these sculptures serve as symbols to the whole of ancient India.

In some aspects the Great Cave resembles the 8th century Kailash Temple in Ellora Caves – often there is considered that artists in both sites could be the same. Cave was used as a Hindu worship place until the Portuguese rule.

The northern entrance to the temple has 1000 steep steps starting from the quayside. Entry into the cave temple leads through an impressive portal with massive columns. The entrance is aligned to the north-south axis what is unusual – in general, Shiva temples have an east-west orientation.

This cave unites the elements of Chalukyan architecture – like the massive figures of the divinities and guardians and square pillars with custom capitals which in turn have Gupta architectural features – depictions of mountains and clouds, women’s hairstyles. The main chamber (mandapa) of the cave is supported by rows of impressive pillars, each side of the mandapa is approximately 27 m long. Beautiful carvings with Shiva in several forms cover each wall in the mandapa, each carving is more than 5 m high.

Cave suffered serious damage during the Portuguese times, most of sculptures were damaged by shooting. Happily, the enormous, unique Trimurti sculpture was spared.

Inside the mandapa, to the right from the entrance, there is located the central Shiva shrine – a free-standing square cell with four entrances and linga in the center. Each of the four entrances in the Shiva shrine is guarded by two dvarapalas – 4.5 – 4.7 m high gatekeepers. Their task is to keep the ill-intentioned visitors away. Sadly these stone giants did not perform their duties during the Portuguese times. At the east and west end of the cave, there are smaller shrines – the eastern one serves as a ceremonial entrance.

Trimurti

The most renowned sculpture in mandapa of the Great Cave is Trimurti (Trimurthy) – a sculpture with three faces of Shiva. It is located on the south wall of mandapa and is 6.1 m high.

Trimurti resembles a Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh (Shiva) – the royal insignia of Rashtrakutas. The image depicts a three-headed Shiva – each of the heads represents one of the essential aspects of Shiva – creation, protection, and destruction. Creation (Vamadeva) looks to the right, it is shown as a young, lively, vital woman (?) with sensuous lips, holding something like a rosebud in her hands. Destruction (Rudra-Shiva, Aghora, Bhairava) to the left, to the east, is shown as a young, mustached man, displaying anger. Central face (Tatpurusha) is benign, meditative, praying for the preservation of humanity, he is master of positive and negative principles of existence.

Trimurti is one of the symbols of Indian culture, a masterpiece of Gupta – Chalukyan art.

Ardhanarisvara, Gangadhara and other treasures

Trimurti is flanked by sculptural groups called Ardhanarisvara on its left and Gangadhara to its right. Gangadhara is 5.2 m high and 4 m wide. It shows divinities assembled around Shiva and Parvati. The 5.11 m high Ardhanarishvara depicts a four-armed Shiva. Shiva is shown as a half male – half female.

The cave contains several more carvings of general importance to world art history including a carving of Shiva and Parvati on Mount Kailash with numerous other characters and detailed landscape features. In total there are 15 enormous panels containing art values.

Portico of the eastern part of the cave is guarded by seated tigers – resembling later seated lions popular up to the 19th century in European manor house designs. The eastern part of the cave contains also a giant statue of a four-armed gatekeeper with two demons – attendants.

The western wing is in bad shape, but it is also rich with stone carvings. Contains a cistern with water – possibly created by Buddhists.

More caves and other monuments

On the crest of the hill above the Great Cave, there is a broken stone lion, tiger or griffin – possibly one of the guards in the entrances of Great Cave. Some sources say that it was worshipped as Tiger Goddess Vaghesvari.

Hindu cave No 2. is located to the south-east from the Great Cave. It is facing east, with a chapel in its northern end. The portal of the cave is destroyed, the interior has been damaged by water. The irregular chapel is supported by 4 eight-cornered columns and 2 demi-columns. Traces of sculptures remain but most of the previously rich artwork has perished.

A little further to the south there is cave No 3. in even worse condition, damaged by stagnant water. Pillars in the front of rooms have been preserved, sculptures of door-keepers of the shrine are partly preserved.

Near the caves, in earlier times there have been found some sculptures – f.e. large sculpture of horse which disappeared in the middle of the 18th century.

Across the top of the ravine from Cave 1, there is a large cave chamber – Sitabai’s Temple. The portico of this chamber has four pillars and two pilasters. Behind the hall there are three chambers, the central chamber hosted shrine. The cave contained beautiful and impressive adornments up to the Portuguese rule but now rather little remains, although the cave still contains valuable sculptures.

To the north from Sitabai’s cave, there is a small Hindu cave No 5. with verandah which has been abandoned soon after the start of construction.

The 173 m high Stupa Hill is located in the eastern part of the island. It contains two caves with Buddhist monuments and also cisterns from the 3rd century AD or earlier. One of the two caves is not complete. In the other cave, there is a stupa made of bricks.

The island contains also other remnants of buildings and artwork – after all this was a place for a capital city in ancient times.

References

1. Advisory Body Evaluation. UNESCO World Heritage Commission. 1987
2. Cycle 1, Section II. UNESCO World Heritage Commission. 2003
3. Elephanta Caves, Sacred Destinations.
4. Elephanta, Places. Raigard District.

Elephanta Caves are included in the following articles:

Ellora caves are numbered from 1 to 34 starting from the south-east to the north-west. In Ellora Caves, this numbering means much more than just simple numbers attributed by scientists for convenience. In general smaller numbers here mean older caves with somewhat less elaborate interiors, while a larger number is attributed to a newer cave that has more exquisite sculptures and other artwork.

While the previous giant achievement of ancient Indian civilization – Ajanta Caves – has a more impressive natural setting and is more ancient (what also is a value), Ellora is even richer with art than Ajanta. Knowing how incredibly rich are Ajanta Caves this might seem impossible – but this is a fact recognized by numerous visitors to both sites.

History of Ellora Caves in short

Beginnings

Rashtrakuta dynasty ruled in a large part of contemporary India in the 6th – 10th centuries. These powerful clans had an excellent internal organization. They managed to keep control over the vast area with a sure hand, wisdom, and also skilled use of religion as the organizing institute for society. In these times Central India experienced a gradual shift from Buddhism to Hinduism, at the end of this period, Jainism became more widespread. These religions rather peacefully co-existed in Central India and Ellora Caves serve as one of the best examples for this. Ellora, especially the glorious Kailasanatha Temple is the highest architectural attainment throughout the rich history of art during the time of this dynasty.

First caves in Ellora were created shortly after the previous royal shrines of this region – Ajanta Caves – were abandoned. In many aspects, Ellora Caves continue the tendencies originating in Ajanta, but there are numerous influences from other regions of India and new trends in art represented in Ellora.

The first group of shrines was created by Buddhists of the Mahayana branch. These are caves numbered from 1 to 12 and were built in 630 – 700 AD (some sources state that in 400 – 800 AD).

Time of Hinduists

The next group was created when the influence of Buddhism vaned and Hinduism gradually became the mainstream religion. In fact, some of the Ellora Hinduist shrines are older than some Buddhist caves. Local rulers were more supportive of Shaivism – a trend of Hinduism devoted to Shiva – thus also Ellora got exquisite shrines devoted to Shiva. These caves are numbered 13 – 29 and constructed in 550 – 780 AD (other sources state that in 600 – 900 AD).

The last group of shrines was created in times when local rulers were more inclined towards Jain religion, the Digambara branch. Jain caves form a distinct group, numbered from 30 to 34, created sometimes around 800 – 1000 AD.

Cave temples hewn in rock were considered to be the best possibility to go away from the reality of the material world and meditate close to the heart of the mountain. But these caves were not another reality hidden away from the mundane world – they formed a part of the political ambitions of the people of influence, they served as the intellectual and arts center of Central India.

Our times

Contrary to Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves did not recede in oblivion, they were admired by people throughout history up to this day. Nowadays this is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Maharashtra state and one of the older UNESCO World Heritage monuments.

Description of separate caves

There is no place for illusions about this chapter – words can not describe the incredible richness of artistic and philosophical messages emanated by thousands of sculptures, drawings, and inscriptions in Ellora. Below you will find just an attempt to list the caves and outline some of their values.

Buddhist caves

These caves, numbered from 1 to 12, were created in 630 – 700 AD (or in 400 – 800 AD?). The newest is Caves 11 and 12, oldest is Cave 6. These are the largest Buddhist cave temples in India.

Most structures (all except Cave No.10) are viharas – Buddhist monasteries. Here they are large, multi-storeyed premises with apartments, kitchens and other rooms making them suitable for living. Some have shrines with Buddhas.

• Cave 1 – vihara with eight small cells. Possibly served as a granary for other viharas, comparatively simple design with little adornment.
• Cave 2 – large vihara with enormous central chamber supported by 12 square pillars. Adorned with numerous sculptures of seated Buddhas.
• Cave 3 and Cave 4 – similar to Cave 2, in poor condition.
• Cave 5 (Maharwada) – the largest vihara. Named after local Mahar people – they used this enormous chamber as a hideaway during the monsoon. The central hall is 36 meters long, contains a sculpture of seated Buddha.
• Cave 6 – created after 600 AD. Among other values contains two beautiful sculptures of star goddess Tara and goddess of learning Mahamayuri with a peacock.
• Cave 10 (Vishvakarma, Visvakarma, “Carpenter’s Cave”, Sutar-ka-Jhopda, Sutar-ki-Jhopari) – the most famous local Buddhist cave, chaitya griha. Built around 700 AD. Cave has a beautiful multi-storeyed entrance with two pillared side porticos. They have chambers – possibly intended to be sanctuaries but not completed. Behind the entrance, there is an enormous chaitya (shrine). Columns in the main hall have ghata-pallava (vase and foliage) capitals. The main hall has a central nave and two side aisles – separated by 28 octagonal columns. The vaulted roof of the chaitya has the characteristic ribs – resembling wooden architecture and used in many other cave temples. In the rear end, there is a 3.3 m high Buddha statue seated in preaching pose. Behind Buddha on the rear wall, there is a carved large Bodhi tree. Initially, the cave had a high screen hall, now ruined.
• Cave 11 (Do Tal or Dho Thal – „two stories”) – vihara, one of the latest Buddhist structures here, with three stories. Third, the basement story was discovered in 1876. It has been converted to a Hinduist shrine as witnessed by images of Durga and Ganesh. Buddha shrine has been left intact.
• Cave 12 (Tin Tal or Teen Thal – „three stories”) – vihara, one of the latest Buddhist structures here, with three stories. The upper hall contains five large sculptures of bodhisattvas, the hall is flanked by seven Buddhas.

Hindu temples

Built sometime around 550 – 780 AD (or 600 – 870 AD?), numbered from 13 to 29. The three oldest caves (17 – 29) were built during the time of the earliest Kalachuri dynasty well before the Rashtrakuta dynasty. The oldest are caves 28, 27. Ellora Hindu temples were created during the time of prosperity and serve as a magnificent testimony to the high achievements of Indian civilization.

• Cave 14 – carved in the early 600s, contains exquisite stone carvings – friezes. Initially was shaped like a Buddhist vihara but during the work converted to Hindu shrine. Entrance guarded by river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna.
• Cave 15 (Dasavatara – Cavern of the ten avatars) – built in the middle of the 8th century, two floors. The upper floor contains some of the most exquisite carvings. Initially started as a Buddhist vihara – it was shaped like an open court with free-standing monolithic mandapa with two-storeyed cave temple at the rear. The cave contains exquisite sculptural groups depicting scenes of Hindu religious motifs including panels with five of Vishnu’s ten incarnations – avatars. Contains also one of the famous Hindu artworks – Shiva as Nataraja, the Cosmic Dancer.
• Cave 16 (Kailash Temple, Kailasanatha) – one of the highest achievements of ancient architecture worldwide, designed to resemble Mount Kailash – the abode of Lord Shiva. Created sometime around 760 – 860 AD, started during the reign of Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (ruled in 757 – 773). Although technically sculpted out of a single rock, Kailash Temple is a free-standing structure with many stories, two times larger in area than, f.e. Parthenon in Athens. It is the largest monolithic human-built structure in the world, up to 36,6 meters high. Length of structure – 84,1 m, width – 47 m.Art historian Sharada Srinivasan considers that the work at such cave temple was started by leveling the area above the temple and exactly measuring the silhouette of the future temple from above. After that artisans started to carve down the rock as if it was cheese, immediately carving elaborate sculptures. Debris possibly was removed over temporary rock bridges. It is assumed that the construction of this temple took 100 years starting from around 760 AD, 200,000 tonnes of rock were removed. This required extremely good planning and precise work to avoid damage to completed work.

  Initially, Kailasanatha was covered with thick, white-colored plaster, thus resembling the sacred icy Kailash mountain in Tibet.
  Temple starts with a high entrance gate or gopuram. It serves as a screen between the sacred temple and the outer world. Behind the gopuram, there opens a courtyard with three stories high columned galleries. In the middle of this courtyard stand several buildings – also hewn out of the same monolithic cliff. Earlier there were flying bridges connecting galleries with the structures in the center but these have collapsed now (or removed after the construction works were completed?).

  First, after the gopuram is a 7 meters high shrine to bull Nandi with two monolithic towers – Dhvajastambhas – flanking it.
  Next, behind the Nandi image there is the largest structure inside the temple – the large mandapa – hall of the temple and the main shrine of Kailash Temple, called Nandi Mandapa. Temple over the shrine rises up to 29,3 m high and stands on 16 pillars. Initially, the temple was colored in bright colors, today nearly all color is gone. Only a few paintings remain on the ceiling of the mandapa. On existing remnants, it is seen that the painting has been done three times at least.

  The giant mandapa is held by numerous life-sized elephants – also carved out of the original rock! This artistic method originates from Pitalkhora Buddhist caves, the 2nd century BC, and later has been repeated in many artworks.

  Adjoining the mandapa is the last structure inside the courtyard – Shiva temple. It is formed like a pyramid, resembling South Indian temples. Both Nandi Mandap and Shiva temple are housing lingams.

  Southern Indian influences in the architecture of Shiva temple could be explained by presence of Southern Indian artists – the state governed by the Rashtrakuta dynasty included also part of Southern India. Shiva temple has many similarities to South Indian Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal which was made several decades earlier.

• Cave 21 (Rameshvara, Ramesavara) – possibly the oldest Hindu cave in Ellora, from the late 500s. Contains some of the most beautiful carvings. At the far end of entrance verandah two beautiful figurines of river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna.
• Cave 22 (Nilkantha) – contains beautiful stone carvings.
• Cave 25 (Kumbharvadam). Contains beautiful sculpture of Surya – Sun god – driving his chariot towards the dawn.
• Cave 27 (Gopilena)
  Beautiful waterfall between cave 28 and Dumar Lena adds unexpected charm to these unique monuments.
• Cave 29 (Dhumar Lena) – created in the late 6th century. Unusual, cross-shaped planning. Contains enormous, beautiful sculpted panels with depictions of Shiva, other exquisite carvings.

Jain temples

Creators of these last five temples draw much inspiration from the older, existing temples. Jain temples are not large if compared to Hindu and Buddhist structures – Jain religion is the religion of asceticism. Jain stone carvings though are unsurpassed in quality and complexity. Earlier many stone carvings were covered with paint which for the most part is gone now.

• Cave 30 (Chhota Kailash) – smaller version of Kailash Temple with beautiful pillars.
• Cave 32 (Indra Sabha – Indra’s Assembly Hall). Extremely ornate, two floors. In the center, there stands a monolithic shrine. The ceiling is adorned with an enormous carving of lotus. Contains remnants of a valuable mural which in its artistic technique shows the beginning of the medieval period in Indian painting. Sculpture of naked Gomateshwara who stands to meditate in a forest without noticing how the vines have grown and twisted around his legs and scorpions and snakes crawl around him.
• Cave 33 – contains remnants of valuable mural which in its artistic technique shows the beginning of medieval period in Indian painting.
• Cave 34 – small and can be accessed only through the opening in Cave 33.

References

1. Ellora Caves, Advisory Body evaluationUNESCO World Heritage Commission, 1983
2. Ellora Caves, Periodic ReportingUNESCO World Heritage Commission, 2003
3. Monolithic marvel, Frontline, July 25, 2014, India’s National Magazine
4. Ellora Caves, Sacred Destinations

Ellora Caves are included in the following article:

One of the best known and most impressive groups of cave temples is Ajanta Caves – these impressive structures serve as a popular tourist destination. These caves contain some of the richest collections of ancient art in the region.

Ajanta art inspired numerous artists of the late 19th – early 20th centuries. Many people were essentially obsessed with copying Ajanta paintings, there have been written numerous books about this phenomenal achievement of humanity.

Incredible accomplishment of ancient stonecutters

Ajanta Caves served as an extremely important religious center of Central Indian empires and, although located in a hard-to-access canyon, mirrored the political and social development of Central India.

First Buddhist caves in the vertical walls of the 75 meters deep (the vertical wall is not that high, this height includes talus) Waghora River canyon were created more than 2,000 years ago. During the Sātavāhana dynasty in the 2nd – 1st century BC early Buddhist monks did something that is hard to do even today – they managed to carve huge halls in the hard basalt rock of Deccan trap.

Zenith of Ajanta though came in 460 – 480 AD, during the Vakataka dynasty. Then Indian stonecutters had to master art which was almost forgotten. For three centuries there were not created cave temples in India. Thus numerous people had to learn these skills a hard way: by doing.

Cave chambers were not just rough hollows – stonecutters made whole interiors with columns, doorways, arched windows – everything was made by hollowing the solid rock as if it was cheese. Even more – up to 6 meters high columns, walls, ceilings were decorated with amazing bas-reliefs, often the flat walls were covered with beautiful, colorful murals.

The layout was marked on the cliff face and the works started from above and went downwards until reaching the floor level. Basic work was done with sharp pick-axes, then the cliff face was leveled by hammer and chisel. This hard work was done with great precision. The largest spaces without support reach 21 x 15 meters – slightly smaller than the basketball field. But, if counting the supports, the halls are significantly larger – ancient stonecutters had quite good knowledge of structural engineering and with great skill planned the use of lintels and columns to create durable constructions.

Originally, caves were accessible by separate stairways from below, from the edge of the water. Nowadays access is much simpler – along the terrace there leads a road with nearly direct access to most cave temples.

Chaitya grihas and viharas

Caves No. 9, 10, 19, 26 are ancient sanctuaries – chaitya-grihas. Other caves though are created as monasteries – viharas.

Several chaitya-grihas are the most ancient monuments in Ajanta, for the most part, created in the 2nd – 1st century BC. They are characterized by a horseshoe-shaped bay above the doorway. Also: the central nave is divided from side aisles with a colonnade. Side aisles open in the apsis where was located stupa – reliquary. It was possible to go behind stupa – the rear wall in the plan is semicircular. Thus in several aspects, these ancient temples are similar to contemporary Christian churches.

Here, as it is seen in many ancient stone structures around the world, architecture is modeled after wooden architecture. Earlier structures were modeled after the simpler Hinayana cave temples.

20 viharas are newer – built during the years of ambitious patronage of Vakataka kings. The concept of construction of Buddhist temples underwent revolution sometime around 460 – 470 AD and as a result, the initially planned comparatively simple dormitories turned out to be complex sophisticated religious complexes. They included a shrine at the far end of the structure with a focus on the large Buddha statue. Sculpting Buddha was allowed comparatively recently and artists used the image of Buddha to show him present among the monks.

In many aspects the art in Ajanta symbolizes the golden age of ancient Indian culture, especially during the reign of Emperor Harishena of the Vakataka dynasty.

It seems that the simultaneous building of 20 viharas, each patrolled by separate influential authorities, raised rivalry among architects and artists, thus adding much splendor to Ajanta Caves.

Viharas of Ajanta belong to the most ornate and rich structures known from ancient times with numerous statues on facades and inside the structures.

Beautiful paintings and sculptures

Several chambers of Ajanta contain some of the best paintings in Buddhist religious art. Ajanta contains also the oldest known Indian paintings from the 2nd century BC.

Paintings of Ajanta are frescoes. In Ajanta murals were made in a specific way, involving several stages of work. First, the surface was prepared – the stone surface was chiseled to make a rough surface holding the plaster. Then there was laid plaster consisting of clay, lime, hay, and dung. Paintings were made while the plaster was wet and colors were made of minerals and plants.

This technique allowed to make paintings that preserved much of their original glory even after 1,500 years of abandonment in the tropical climate.

Plastering was done by really skillful artisans – even some of the sculptures were plastered to get the effect of smoothness. Unusual shine was achieved by adding powdered conches and seashells – such polished plaster has a glassy surface.

Paintings of women in Ajanta are world-renowned – women in these drawings are beautiful. How else? Many of woman paintings and sculptures depict such mythical beings as yakshas, nagas, vrikshikas, river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna. Supernatural beauty is part of the essence of such beings.

Time is relentless – some paintings miraculously have survived but many things have changed. Statues of Buddha nowadays have a rugged, uncolored surface – but many centuries ago they most likely were smooth and covered with bright colors.

Sometimes it is mentioned that the painting technique in Ajanta is not fresco, it is mural. This is a somewhat confusing announcement – as if somebody would say that herring is not a herring but a fish. Fresco is characterized by the application of paint on wet plaster – thus ensuring a long life of colors. Exactly this was made in Ajanta. And finally – any fresco is a mural. Mural simply is painting on a wall, ceiling, or similar large surface.

Lost…

With the grandiose fall of the Vakataka empire sometimes around 480 AD Ajanta Caves were abandoned – within few months after the death of Harishena all the influential patrons of Ajanta Caves fled and Buddhist monasteries lost any support. Some of the paintings seem to be abandoned in a hurry – just a few hours were needed to make them ready, but some sudden events made further work impossible or useless.

The year of abandonment still is challenged by some scientists – some consider that temples were inhabited up to the 7th century AD, there is a report from Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang from the 7th century – he saw these monasteries full with life.

The forbidding canyon of Waghora River soon grew over with dense jungle. This might seem impossible – but the amazing, otherworldly beauty created and admired by many generations faded away from the memory of people. Once filled with life, beautiful caves were silent and undisturbed for approximately 1,100 – 1,300 years. Imagine… 1,300 years!

…and found again

Officer of the British army, captain John Smith was hunting a tiger on April 28, 1819. He followed the trail and entered the gorge. Back then the cliff walls were covered with dense vegetation – but the captain noticed a hollow through the interlaced roots and shoots.

Captain Smith left his name on the wall in this cave – this inscription still is faintly visible up to this day – out of reach now as the debris has been removed.

Description of caves – one by one

In total there are 29 – 30 cave chambers in Ajanta. Caves traditionally are numbered starting with the one closest to the village.

Cave 1 – royal vihara

One of the best-preserved cave chambers in the group, considered to be the most splendid Buddhist vihara in India. Possibly created to be an imperial cave of king Harishena. Paintings look fresh and are not damaged by soot – thus it is possible that this cave was not used by monks.

Some details though have perished such as portico with two pillars seen in photographs from the 19th century. The cave can be entered through three doorways, two windows are located between doorways.

The facade of the cave is adorned with elaborate, exquisite carvings depicting scenes from the life of Buddha. The porch still contains remnants of murals that once covered most of the spacious porch.

The main hall is some 6 m high with a shrine located at the rear wall. The shrine contains statues of seated Buddha. There are cells along the walls of the main hall.

Paintings are in a rather good state of conservation and belong to the best examples of ancient Indian art.

Cave 2 – vihara

This monastery building is even better preserved than Cave 1. Contains exquisite, well-preserved paintings on walls, ceilings, and pillars. The design of the porch differs from Cave 1, massive pillars are ornamented, walls are covered with murals depicting the life of Buddha in his former incarnations as Bodhisattva. Contains also smaller shrines to lesser deities.

This cave, in general, is very rich with paintings – in some areas well preserved, in others – nearly lost.

Cave 4 – vihara

The largest vihara in Ajanta Caves, created in the 5th century. Partly collapsed, most likely during the construction.

Inscription on the pedestal of Buddha in this vihara tells that the sculpture is a religious gift from a private person.

Cave 5 – vihara

Never completed – basically only porch, door and a short distance after the door have been made. Still, this cave contains beautiful sculptures.

Cave 6 – vihara

The only double-story structure in Ajanta Caves. The walls of this cave are covered with a thick layer of soot from incense and lamps, damaging the exquisite artwork. Diverse paintings include a figure of a devotee kneeling before Buddha.

Cave 7 – vihara

Intended as an enormous vihara but not completed. Only a very elaborate porch with few more details has been built. Exquisite paintings of the porch were lost due to smoke.

Cave 8 – vihara

An ancient structure which belongs to Hinayana school. Artisans created it in the 2nd – 1st century BC.

Cave 9 – sanctuary

Also, an ancient structure that belongs to the Hinayana school. The structure was created in the 2nd – 1st century BC. Contains ancient paintings which have been repainted at some later time. This is the cave that was discovered by Captain Smith in 1819 and it bears his inscription in pencil.

Cave 10 – sanctuary

The oldest (as far as archaeological knowledge about Ajanta goes) structure in Ajanta dating from the 2nd century BC, architecture testifies its belonging to Hinayana school. Contains ancient paintings which have been repainted at some later time.

Cave 11 – vihara

Possibly the oldest cave from the second period of Ajanta – from the 5th century.

Cave 12 – vihara

An ancient structure that belongs to Hinayana school. Ancient artists created it in the 2nd – 1st century BC.

Cave 13 – vihara

This is also an ancient structure that belongs to the Hinayana school. Artisans created it in the 2nd – 1st century BC.

Cave 14 – vihara

Made in the late 5th century, never completed. Basically, there is made a rough doorway with sculptures of yakshas.

Cave 15 – vihara

One more ancient structure, belonging to the Hinayana school, was created in the 2nd – 1st century BC.

Cave 16 – vihara

One of the best-placed caves in the middle of the complex. The cave chamber is adorned with beautiful paintings. Two elephant statues at the base of a stairway leading to the cave. The porch is damaged.

An inscription testifies that this cave is dedicated to the Buddhist Sangha by Vaharadeva, the influential prime minister of king Harishena (around 475-500 AD). There are numerous important inscriptions rising scientific discussion about the history of Central India in 460 – 480 AD.

Cave 17 – vihara

The richest collection of beautiful murals, especially ceiling. In many places, murals are damaged by soot from incense and lamps. An interesting accent is the depiction of an ancient Persian – Sassanian servant holding a Sassanian vessel on the left rear wall.

Inscription testifies that this structure is a gift of a prince in the time of king Harishena (around 475-500 AD).

Cave 18 – vihara

Initially, possible side shrine, part of Cave 19. Over time though developed as a cut-through between Cave 17 and Cave 19.

Cave 19 – sanctuary

Magnificent chaytia from the late 5th century. Contains remnants of paintings including depictions of Buddha considered to be innovative by some art historians. The facade of the porch is very rich with adornments.

Cave 20 – vihara

Shrine from the 5th century AD. Contains an impressive stairway while the chamber has little interest to offer. The cave contains murals – including depictions of mundane joys such as hunting.

Cave 21 – vihara

The first cave behind a periodic waterfall. Vihara from the 5th century AD, unfinished. The porch is well adorned and preserved.

Cave 23 – vihara

Mostly unfinished, the porch though contains interesting figures.

Cave 24 – vihara

Mostly unfinished but the doorway is beautifully carved. Sculptures of two river goddesses on the upper corners of the doorway. It is calculated that approximately 200 people were working here when work unexpectedly terminated.

Cave 26 – sanctuary

Created in the late 5th century, a group of structures. Contains interesting drawings resembling a style of drawings at Ellora Caves. Porch adorned with numerous statues of Buddha as well as numerous other subjects. A famous sculptural group is the Parinirvana scene along the whole length of the cave.

Painting on the ceiling includes the usual lotus-lake motive, but here several geese are added among lotuses.

Cave 27 – vihara

Contains paintings at the right end of the front aisle as well as the inscription which informs that monk – painter here attained transcendental personage through painting images of Buddha.

Cave 29 – sanctuary

Here starts a fall of Vaghora River with seven cascades (sat-kund). The cave chamber is not finished, made in the 5th century.

References

1. Ajanta Caves, description of monument for Advisory Body evaluation, UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 1983
2. Ajanta Caves, report on state of conservation, UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2003
3. Ajanta: History and Development. Walter M. Spink 2005
4. The art of Ajanta & Sopoćani. Om D. Upadhya, Udaipur 1994

Ajanta Caves are included in the following lists and articles: