There is one word that many visitors to Varanasi are using frequently: overwhelming. The diversity of architecture, people, colors, sounds, and, above all, the zillion of untold but, nevertheless, perceptible stories behind all this diversity stream into the mind of an unprepared tourist from Europe or North America. This is an absolutely unique city, a metropolis that exists for some 4 000 years, it impersonates the greateness of the Indian civilization.

History

Varanasi belongs to the world’s oldest cities with continuous habitation. Many Indians are convinced that this is the oldest city in the world.

According to Hindu mythology, Shiva founded the city in a place where the head of Brahma (killed by Shiva) fell on the ground and disappeared. Throughout its history, Varanasi has been a major center of arts, culture, and religion. Many of the most influential people in the history of India lived and acted in Varanasi.

• 1800 BC – the oldest finds of the habitation in the vicinities of the city.
• 800 BC – the oldest known artefacts of a settlement in the central part of the city.
• 528 BC – Gautama Buddha gave the first sermon nearby, in Sarnath and the religion of Buddhism was born. Buddha often visited Varanasi and this city impacted the early history of Buddhism. By this time Varanasi was a significant urban center. Varanasi was at the crossroads of two important trade routes – the Ganges and the trade route to North India.
• Around 635 AD – the Chinese traveler Xuanzang visited Varanasi and described it as a large metropolis that extends for some 5 kilometers along the Ganges. He mentioned that the city had some 30 temples.

  

• Middle of the 8th century AD – the worship of Shiva was established as the official sect of Varanasi by the influential Vedic scholar Adi Shankara. Varanasi became a Hindu religious learning center.
• 1034 – attack of a unit of the Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi army on Varanasi. Even if this attack was not supported by the Sultan, it marked the increasing Islamic influence in this part of India.
• 1194 – Sultan Mu’izz al-Din Muhammad captured Varanasi. The city was to a large extent demolished, several Hindu temples were destroyed.
• 1506 or 1507 – The future founder of Sikhism Guru Nanak visited Varanasi and his experiences in the city helped to form the religion of Sikhism. Varanasi is an important learning center for Sikhs up to this day.
• Second half of the 16th century – major development of the city during the reign of Mughal emperor Akbar.
• After 1656 – Mughal emperor Aurangzeb ordered to demolish numerous Hindu temples and to build mosques instead.
• 1722 – Mughal Empire was weakening and Varanasi got under the control of Saadat Ali Khan I, the Nawab of Awadh.
• 1739 – Varanasi became the capital of Benares State and in 1740 Balwant Singh declared himself Maharaja of Benares. A prolonged guerilla war ensued in the coming decades against the neighboring Nawab of Awadh.
• Middle and late 18th century – most of the present-day Varanasi historical center was constructed in this time period. Varanasi became an important tourism destination.
• 1775 – the city was acquired by the East India Company, it was ruled by Maharaja Chait Singh.

  

• 1781 – Revolt of Benares. Maharaja made an attempt to get free of the control of East India Company without success. Maharaja managed to arrest even the Governor-General of India, Warren Hastings. Hastings escaped from Varanasi under the disguise of a woman.
• 1791 – Sanskrit College (now Sampurnanand Sanskrit University) was founded in Varanasi. This university and research center has gained huge importance in the learning of Indian philosophy, religion and culture.
• 1830ies – there are more than 1 000 temples in the city.
• 1911 – Benares State became a separate entity of British India with its own prince. Formal capital of the state was in Ramnagar across the Ganges.
• 1947 – with the independence of India Benares State was dissolved and became a part of Uttar Pradesh State.
• 2020 – the highest number of tourists so far visited Varanasi. In total the city accepted nearly 8.9 million tourists, around 8.7 million of them were Indians.

Description

Varanasi up to this day is the central place of Hindu pilgrimage and much of the city life is linked to this. Hindus believe that dying and being cremated at the Ganges in Varanasi gives a possibility to break the cycle of rebirth and reach salvation. Thus, millions of Hindus come to the city to die there and their ashes are poured into the sacred river. There are numerous other Hindu rituals at the sacred Ganges as well.

These traditions created Varanasi’s unique features of urban planning.

Ghats of Varanasi

The religious rituals and the whole life of Varanasi are closely linked to the Ganges. Since ancient times people on the steep coast of the Ganges built staircases that enabled access to the river. Each of these stairs has some 40 to 60 steps, and is named ghats. In total in the city are 84-88 such ghats over the distance of some 6.5 kilometers, each with its own history and the ensemble of surrounding buildings. Most of the current ghats were built in the 18th century, frequently – on the site of earlier stairways, but the ghats have existed in Varanasi since the 8th century AD at least.

One of the most exciting ways to experience Varanasi is an early morning boat drive along the ghats, watching the eternal spectacle of daily life in this unusual city. Ghats are the place where much of the life is happening in the city: religious rituals, burials, marriage, and other festivities as well as everyday walks and, of course, the trade and guiding of the hordes of tourists.

The most prominent ghats of Varanasi are:

• Dashashwamedh Ghat – possibly the most impressive and most central ghat in Varanasi. The current ghat was built in 1748. This is a location with spectacular evening rituals – Ganga aarti.

  

• Manikarnika Ghat – one of the oldest and holiest ghats in the city, first mentioned in the 5th century AD. In Hindu mythology, the deceased ones who are cremated there, receive moksha, e.g. they are liberated from the eternal cycle of rebirth and death. Thus, this is an unusual and even unsettling place where the bodies of dead people burn almost all the time. An unusual temple – Ratneshwar Mahadev temple – is located between this ghat and Scindia Ghat. This is a leaning structure, slanted per 9 degrees. For the most part of the year, it is partially submerged in the river.
• Harishchandra Ghat – another well known cremation ghat with a similar legend about its importance.
• Assi Ghat – the most “touristy” ghat with diverse public activities. This is a holy site where the sacred Asi River flows into the Ganges.
• Ganga Mahal Ghat – beautiful ghat next to Assi Ghat. It was built in 1830.
• Raj Ghat – the northernmost ghat. This is a less impressive ghat but on this site were discovered the possible beginnings of Varanasi – traces of a settlement that was inhabited already in the 8th century BC.
• Maan-Mandir Ghat – one of the most beautiful ghats, constructed in 1600 AD. This ghat is adorned with a beautiful palace above it with the famous Jantar Mantar observatory on it.
• Lalita Ghat – a beautiful ghat that is an important monument of Nepali culture. It was developed in the early 19th century by exiled King of Nepal. The beautiful Nepali Mandir and Lalita Gauri Mandir rise above this stairway.
• Bachraj Ghat (Jain Ghat) is a very important Jain shrine with three beautiful Jain temples.

Outstanding buildings

There are thousands of architecturally and historically important buildings in the city. There are almost 3000 temples and shrines in the city as well as numerous palaces and other amazing structures. One should always remember that many historical buildings in Varanasi stand in the place of former buildings and the history of some structures is millennia-old… Some of the most prominent current architectural landmarks are:

Temples

• Kashi Vishwanath Mandir – one of twelve Maha Jyotirlingas, the holiest temples of Shiva. This temple has been demolished several times by Muslim rulers, the current temple was built in 1780 and has a prominent, gold-covered dome and spire.
• Kaal Bhairav Mandir – one of the holiest Shiva temples. This is an ominous temple that is devoted to Kaal Bhairav: a fierce form of Shiva. According to beliefs even the death fears of Kaal Bhairav. The temple is accordingly adorned with skull garlands. According to the legend, Shiva founded Varanasi in the place where the head of Brahma fell from his hand on the ground – thus this temple in a way symbolizes the beginnings of Varanasi City.

  

• Durga Mandir – a gorgeous Hinduist temple that is devoted to Durga. This ornate, red-colored temple was built in the 18th century in the Nagara style. Next to the temple is a large pond – Durga Kund.
• Annapurna Devi Mandir – this Hinduist temple is devoted to Annapurna, a goddess for nourishment. The ornate structure was constructed in 1729 in the Nagara style. This is a living temple with numerous religious festivities throughout the year.
• Nepali Mandir – this temple is like a small piece of Nepal in Varanasi. It was constructed in the early 19th century by the exiled King of Nepal. It is a copy of Pashupatinath Temple in Kathmandu.

Other structures

• Jantar Mantar – one of five astronomical observatories that were built during the times of Maharaja Jai Singh II. This observatory was built in 1737 and there were installed instruments to follow the course of the Sun, planets, and stars.
• Ramnagar Fort – this beautiful and impressive fort is located on the other, eastern bank of the Ganges. This enormous castle in Mughal architecture style was constructed in the 18th century and today frequently is used as a filming location.

References

1. UNESCO World Heritage Convention. Iconic Riverfront of the Historic City of Varanasi. Accessed on July 10, 2022.

Size and description

Niagara Falls has formed on Niagara River – a powerful but short river between some of the world’s largest lakes – Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. This river brings plentiful waters from the giant Great Lakes (except one – Lake Ontario which is downstream) towards the Atlantic Ocean. The river is just 50.8 km long but it has a discharge that is comparable (a bit less) to the discharge of the Yukon River.

Falls have characteristic green water – it is colored by the lime suspension and salts.

The waterfall is located approximately halfway between the lakes. The river here is divided by islands, thus the waterfall is divided into three parts: American Falls, Bridal Veil Falls, and Horseshoe Falls.

Three parts of Niagara Falls

American Falls is entirely on the American side. The small Luna Island divides it from the Bridal Veil Falls which also are in the area of the United States. After some 480 m wide Goat Island comes the most impressive – Horseshoe Falls which is located both in Canada and a little bit – in the United States.

American Falls receive some 10% of the total flow of Niagara. Nevertheless, even if considered alone, this is a magnificent waterfall, 21-34 m tall and 290 m wide. If the height of the talus is added, the height of the falls is 57 m. The enormous heap of talus at the base of falls formed over the last 150 years, when the overhanging ledge of falls fell down.

Bridal Veil Falls is just 17 m wide. Vertical fall is 24 m, followed by fall over 31 m tall heap of the talus: thus the total height of this fall is 55 m. Behind this waterfall formed an alcove: Cave of the Winds, which is some 9 m deep, 40 m tall, and 30 m wide. Guided tours to this place behind the falls started already in 1841. Visiting the cave was an interesting experience because the moving mass of water moves the air as well and in the cave is a constant whirlwind that could be as strong as a tropical storm. The cave became dangerous and collapsed in 1954. Currently, visitors can descend to the base of falls in this place and enjoy the damp air, splashes, and wind.

Horseshoe Falls receive some 90% of the Niagara waters. This is the tallest of three parts – 51 m tall and 820 m wide, the most admired part of Niagara Falls.

Flow rate

The flow rate in this waterfall is the highest in North America and one of the highest in the world – average flow is 2,400 m³ per second but a flow of some 6,400 m³ per second has been recorded as well. The highest flow is in the late spring-early summer when Lake Erie receives more water.

Sound

Early European explorers of Niagara Falls were amazed by the powerful sound of the falls. Falls could be heard from a distance of some 45 kilometers and more than one kilometer from the falls people could not hear each other.

Today it is not like this anymore – a major part of the water is diverted to the hydropower plants.

Geological history

Niagara Falls formed on Niagara Escarpment – an enormous escarpment that extends from Rochester (New York, USA) to the western side of Lake Michigan. It was formed by the erosion of rocks that have varied resistance – the harder layer of limestone and dolostone forms the escarpment while the softer rocks have been washed away over millions of years. Hundreds of bigger and smaller waterfalls have formed over this escarpment but Niagara Falls are the largest by far.

Falls formed at the end of the last ice age more than 10 thousand years ago. Then water from the Great Lakes found a way over the Niagara Escarpment right here.

Initially, at the end of the last ice age, the waterfall was closer to Lake Ontario per some 10.9 km. Waterfall receded per some 0.9 m every year but now, due to the lesser amount of water erosion has slowed down to some 0.3 m every year. Nevertheless, after some 50 thousand years the waterfall would reach Lake Erie and this would mean the end for the waterfall and also the decrease of Lake Erie.

Human history

Timeline

• The first people (Clovis culture) could be present already at the moment when the falls formed.
• Name of Niagara, most likely, comes from one of the Iroquoian languages although there is no consensus about its origin and meaning.
• Europeans heard about the falls from local people already in the 16th century when the exploration of Canada started. But it is not entirely clear which European was the first to see these falls: these could be some of the participants of the expedition of Samuel de Champlain in 1604 but the first proper description of this waterfall belongs to Belgian missionary Louis Hennepin in 1677.
• In the middle of the 19th century, this became a notable tourist destination and tourism gave work to many local people.
• The best-known tourist attraction here is a boat cruise “Maid of the Mist” operating since 1848.
• One of the first photographs of a natural landmark (the first one?) was taken in 1840 at the falls.
• Around the 1870ies industry takes the first hand and numerous local industries started to use the power of falls and limited the development of tourism.
• In 1881 near the falls was built the first hydroelectric power plant in the world – Schoelkopf Power Station No. 1.
• In 1885 was created Niagara Reservation – the first state park in New York. Further work with the restoration of the landscape around the falls was an innovation. Nevertheless, the landscape around the falls is urbanized now, with skyscrapers and observation towers, boats, and an endless flow of tourists.
• Here was developed also one of the first alternating current power plants in 1885. Now some 50 – 75% of the flow of Niagara River is diverted to hydropower plants through underground channels. Canada and USA have also agreed to keep a certain flow of water in order to maintain the tourist industry in the region. Hydropower plants should maintain an unbroken curtain of water in the falls.
• Tourism in this area further increased after the use of automobiles became commonplace after World War I. Since then intense development around the falls started. This development is conflicting: humans want to harness the power of the water for electricity generation, they want to earn as much from tourism as possible, and at the same time: they want to preserve the natural beauty of falls.
• Every year this amazing monument of nature is visited by some 14 – 28 million visitors.

Stunts

If there exists a waterfall that is part of the pop culture, it is Niagara Falls.
This famous waterfall and eternal crowds around it have attracted countless daredevils, jumping in the falls with barrels, boats, or just without anything, walking in ropes. This is strictly forbidden but nevertheless, from time to time daredevils manage to jump here, some surviving, some – not.

The latest great stunt was the 550 m long tightrope walk by Nik Wallenda in 2012 – the longest unsupported tightrope walk in history.

References

1. Colossal Cataract: The Geologic History of Niagara Falls. 1981. ISBN-10: 0873955234.

Niagara Falls are included in the following article:

History of St Mark’s Basilica

Beginnings of the magnificent Venice City

The history of St Mark’s Basilica started when Venice was one of the last outposts of the Byzantine Empire surrounded by the Carolingian Empire. The spirited grandee Agnello Participazio organized the defense of Venice against the Lombardian forces and was elected as the tenth doge of Venice in 811.

Participazio moved the capital of Venice from the present-day Malamocco on Lido island to Rialto in the center of present-day Venice – this island was easier to protect against the enemy forces. The development of present-day Venice started.

Story of Saint Mark

It seems, Saint Mark the Evangelist, contemporary of Jesus Christ and, possibly, the boy who lived in the house with Cenacle – the house where the Last Supper took place, during his life did not have anything to do with Venice or even present-day Italy. This learned man was sent by Jesus to spread his teachings in Judea and later wrote the Gospel of Mark – part of the present-day Bible. He founded the Christian Church in Africa, the Coptic Orthodox Church, and served as the first bishop of Alexandria.

He died as a martyr in 68 AD and his remains were in Alexandria, guarded by Coptic monks. Meanwhile Venice – the rising center of power – needed everything. It became richer but it needed influence over the minds.

Then, reportedly, happened the following:

The next doge Giustiniano Participazia – son of Agnello Participazio – approved a daring quest. Two Venetian merchants, Buono di Malamocco and Rustico di Torcello, were sent to a mission to Alexandria. They bribed the guards and stole the remnants of Saint Mark, hiding them among the pork. They brought it to Venice on January 31 828.

There was a need to have a representative shrine to hold these invaluable relics. Thus Giustiniano ordered to build a chapel dedicated to Saint Mark.

Timeline

• 828 – Doge of Venice orders to build his chapel next to the new Doge’s Palace.
• 832 – first chapel completed.
• 830ies – the first St. Mark’s Campanile – bell tower – constructed.
• 976 – first chapel burned down during a rebellion.
• 978 – next chapel built.
• 1063 – 1094 – the present cathedral is built and consecrated.
• 1106 – remnants of a man, supposedly, the body of Saint Mark – were discovered in a pillar of the church.
• 1204 – after the siege and loot of Constantinople Venetians bring to Basilica many outstanding values of art.
• First half of the 13th century – the present-day facade and the narthex constructed, five domes rebuilt in their present form. Most of the mosaics completed inside.
• 13th century – the private Doge’s chapel gradually becomes a state church. St Mark’s Basilica becomes the place where the grand ceremonies of the Republic of Venice take place.
• 13th – 15th century – Deceased doges are buried inside the church until the space runs out.
• 13th – 19th century – Basilica becomes more and more opulent, there are added more and more embellishments, gold, jewels, works of art. The facade is covered with marble and intricate carvings.
• 1797, 1807 – end of the Venetian Republic. Upon the order of Napoleon Basilica becomes the seat of the Patriarch of Venice, archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Venice.

Design

St. Mark’s Basilica has bold and unusual planning – there are few buildings like it. It has a plan of a Greek cross (e.g. cross with equal length of arms) and has five large domes, which are made of wood and covered with 2-3 millimeters thick sheet of lead. The building is 76.5 m long and 62.5 m wide.

The church incorporates also a low tower which is believed to be a part of the original Doge’s Palace. Now it houses St. Mark’s Treasure.

Facade

The main facade has five enormous portals rising tall above the countless tourists in Piazza San Marco. Portals have round arches with bronze-fashioned doors. The sumptuous facade is adorned with mosaics depicting the scenes from the Life of Christ as well as the history of the relics of Saint Mark.

The roofline is adorned with many sculptures: the statue of Saint Mark stands in the center. Below this statue is a relief of a winged lion – the symbol of this saint as well as the symbol of Venice.

Triumphal Quadriga

Above the main entrance are located replicas of one more, very special treasure of art – the Horses of Saint Mark (Triumphal Quadriga). The original horses are inside the church now.

Quadriga, most likely, was made in Roman times. These copper horses were brought to Venice after the sack of Constantinople in 1204. Collars of horses hide cuts – their heads were severed in order to make possible their transport.

Four Tetrarchs

One more loot from Constantinople is the porphyry sculpture of the Four Tetrarchs in the corner of the facade. It also is made in the times of Ancient Rome, around 300 AD, and shows the four rulers of the Roman Empire. This is an outstanding work of art – an early predecessor of medieval art.

Interior

The most stunning feature of the interior is the golden mosaics which cover some 8000 m². As a result, the interior shimmers and sparkles.

The oldest part is on the main porch and could be made around 1070. This early mosaic represents Byzantine art but by 1130 the mosaics were made already in a local, Italian style.

The interior was completed around the 1290ies. Later, when restorations were needed, the designs were made by many prominent artists – Paolo Uccello, Paolo Veronese, Titian, Jacopo Tintoretto, and others.

Unique work of Byzantine art is the high altar retable – Pala d’Oro. It is made of gold and more than 2000 precious stones and pearls. Originally made in 976 and expanded around 1105. In 1345 it was further expanded with a Gothic-style frame by the goldsmith Giovanni Paolo Bonesegna.

Inside the Basilica are numerous other works of art of international importance, many coming from exotic lands.

St Mark’s Basilica had an influence on music as well – here evolved Venetian polychoral style: several choirs were alternately singing in different places of the church. This music in the late 16th century was the precursor of the Baroque style in music.

This magnificent structure is a true paradise for lovers of art history – there are thousands of details to explore and contemplate.

References

1. Basilica di San Marco. Accessed in the 17th December 2018

St Mark’s Basilica is included in the following list:

History

Saint Peter

History of St Peter’s Basilica starts at the Sea of Galilee in contemporary Israel. Local fisherman Simon became one of the first followers of Jesus and Jesus gave him a nickname – Peter ("cliff"). After the death of Jesus, he became a leader of Christians and was actively spreading the faith in Judea, Palestine, and Antioch.

It is not known whether Saint Peter ever came to Rome… but according to later Christian accounts he did. Maybe we will never learn the truth – history too often is invented and rewritten – but according to the tradition of the Church, St Peter was the first leader of Christians in Rome, and thus – he was the first Pope in the main metropolis of the ancient world.

According to the story Saint Peter was executed in 64 AD after the Great Fire of Rome when Christians were blamed for this catastrophe. He was executed at an ancient Egyptian obelisk in the Circus of Nero. It is considered that the current obelisk in St Peter’s Square is the same witness of these tragic events.

His remains were buried (again, according to unproven legends) next to the circus, in an established cemetery on Mons Vaticanus, outside the City of Rome. There have been buried numerous victims of executions, and, due to the burial of Saint Peter – numerous local Christians.

Archaeological excavations took place here in 1939 and under the church were found fragments of bones wrapped in a purple and golden fabric – definitely an important burial. It was decided that these remnants belonged to Saint Peter.

First Basilica

Large rock was placed over the grave initially and some years later Christians built a small shrine here.

As Christianity became the leading religion in Rome, there arose a need for the main shrine and in the times of Emperor Constantine the Great in the time period between 319 and 333 AD there started the construction of the so-called Old St Peter’s Basilica. It was built around 360 AD.

This was an enormous building for its time – it was more than 103.6 m long, with an impressive atrium. This fine building stood there for more than 1000 years.

World’s most magnificent church needed…

Nevertheless by the end of the 15th century the ancient basilica was in dire need of reconstruction.

During the reign of Pope Nicholas V (1447 – 1455) it was decided that a new church or significant rebuilding of the existing one is needed. Of course, it had to be larger and more splendid than the old one. Some works were even started but when the pope died, everything stopped.

Pope Julius II (reigned in 1503 – 1513) moved the ambitious project further. He announced a tender for the largest and most splendid structure in the Christian world. Many great designs were proposed by the best architects, engineers, and artists of the time, with numerous innovations and lots of unseen ambitions. After lengthy discussions, the design of Donato Bramante was selected.

Lengthy construction

It took time to build the world’s greatest church, lots of time. Construction works started in 1506 and ended in… 1626.

Design of Bramante was modified after the death of Pope Julius II in 1513 – and this was only the first change in plans. During its construction, St Peter’s Basilica saw many chief architects including the great Raphael who introduced the nave with five bays (not realized), and Michelangelo. Although Michelangelo was not too happy to become an architect, Basilica to a large extent was shaped by him. Thus the great painter and sculptor can be listed also among the world’s greatest architects.

Such an enormous deed left an influence not only on the history of art. Soon after the start of the construction, it became clear that lots of money will be needed – a lot more than Church had at the time. Financial geniuses of these times invented many sources of financing and one was: the trade of indulgences in exchange for financial support for the construction of the new St Peter’s Basilica.

Marketing for these indulgences was ubiquitous – Pope desperately needed as many finances as possible. This raised protest and inspired Martin Luther to write his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, starting the Reformation.

Nevertheless work continued. In 1590 the dome – a wonder of structural engineering that was designed by Michelangelo – was completed. He did not live to see it: Michelangelo died in 1564.

Later, in the middle of the 18th century the dome cracked and it was reinforced by heavy iron chains around it.

Works continued also in the 17th century. After lengthy discussions, it was decided to build a nave and current facade towards St Peter’s Square.

The enormous (114.69 m wide and 45.55 m high) facade was designed by Carlo Maderno – and this part of the Basilica has been criticized ever after due to its inharmonious proportions.

There were planned also two towers on each side of the facade. One tower was even built but the ground started to settle and thus the bell tower was demolished (designer Gian Lorenzo Bernini had to cover the costs of this demolition) and the idea of bell towers was abandoned.

Long build history of St Peter’s Basilica shows also in the architectonic style of diverse parts. While the dome of the church is one of the highest achievements in Renaissance architecture, the facade and nave represent slightly different ages, with many features of the upcoming Baroque style.

Description of St Peter’s Basilica

Size

St Peter’s Basilica is one of the largest churches in the world up to this day. It is the largest one by area (the interior area is 15,160 m²), length (external length – 211.5 m), and volume (5 million m³ which by far exceeds any other church in the world).

Dome

In the planned church has a cruciform shape with a dome in the center. This giant dome dominates the skyline of Rome.

It is one of the largest domes in the world – the tallest in the world (136.57 m).

Diameter of the dome is 41.47 m – less than in Florence Cathedral but nevertheless it is one of the greatest domes in the world. In order to make it lighter, the concrete contains numerous pieces of the light pumice and tufa (ancient Roman formula, rediscovered for this case), it is also thin, with vertical and horizontal ribs to reinforce it (like in Pantheon).

The design of the enormous dome was inspired by the Pantheon, but there were significant differences too. The enormous dome is resting on four piers and above it rises one more, smaller dome of the lantern.

St Peter’s Square

St Peter’s Square is a landmark by itself but to a large extent it forms the impression of Basilica.

In its present shape the square was shaped in 1656 – 1667 by Gian Lorenzo Bernini and is one of the masterpieces of the Baroque style. Bernini had to create an urban ensemble which is focusing the attention of visitors on the basilica. Of course, he had to keep the Egyptian obelisk – an important landmark in the history of St Peter’s Basilica.

Bernini had different options to plan the square – square or trapezoid or any other shape. His solution though was different and innovative – he designed a space consisting of two elements: a trapezoid plaza at the basilica and an open space in elliptical shape further from it, around the obelisk. Thus Bernini managed to decrease the negative effects of the facade, seemingly making it narrower and taller. Both plazas are flanked by impressive colonnades.

This ingenious solution was one of the major manifestations of Baroque style in urban planning, with an intricate, harmonious play of different existing and newly added elements.

Entrance

After traversing the magnificent square one ascends enormous stairs flanked by statues of Saint Peter (to the left) and Saint Paul (to the right) and reaches the main facade of the church.

The northernmost of the five entrance doors is the Holy Door – an ornate (everything here is ornate) door which normally is sealed by mortar and cement. It is opened only on a special occasion: Jubilee years which are announced by the Pope for the remission of sins. In earlier times these festivities took place every 33 – 25 years but sometimes more frequently. Well, in the 20th – 21st centuries Jubilees are more frequent – seems, there are too many sins to be remitted.

Interior

Interior of the St Peter’s Basilica is… incredibly vast. There are few buildings in the world with such a spacious interior and few – with a such ornate interior. The size and beauty of the premises dwarf the humans. It is so large that for visitors it is hard to get a sense of scale.

The enormous nave is slightly tilted towards the Egyptian obelisk.

Barrel vault of the nave is the highest in the world, with numerous impressive chapels found on both sides.

Behind the high altar two staircases lead to the underground chapel – Chapel of the Confession which is located above the purported burial site of Saint Peter.

Chair of Saint Peter

In the apse is located the Chair of Saint Peter – a relic, a legendary chair which according to legends was used by Saint Peter (in reality – a gift to the Pope in 875 AD). Later it was used by many popes. After its use throughout the centuries, it became unusable – thus it was turned into a work of art.

Now the chair is enclosed in a beautiful gilded casing (Bernini, 1647 – 1653) – an outstanding and innovative (for its time) example of Baroque art.

Other relics

In St Peter’s Basilica are four precious relics – the spear of Longinus which pierced Christ (although there are several more churches around the world that claim to have the same spear), the veil of Veronica with the miraculous face of Christ, a piece of True Cross brought here by mother of Emperor Constantine – Helena and relics of St.Andrew, brother of St Peter.

Above the altar stands another outstanding work of art, the largest piece of bronze on Earth – 30 m tall, ornate baldacchino, also created by Bernini.

Burials

In the basilica have been buried numerous outstanding people – many popes and others, such as St. Ignatius of Antioch, Queen Christina of Sweden, and composer Palestrina. Many popes are buried in the ancient necropolis beneath the Basilica, just like (possibly) Saint Peter. Many burials are adorned with renowned artworks, such as Michelangelo’s Pietà.

Importance and impact

St Peter’s Basilica has been a site of pilgrimage for centuries and continues to attract visitors from all over the world.

Formally it is just one of four Papal Basilicas, but it is by far the best known and most important one. As it is next to the Papal residence and is very large, here take place most Papal liturgies.

These liturgies draw the attention of thousands of believers and tourists, at times gatherings can have up to 80 000 people.

Architecture and art of St Peter’s Basilica have served as inspiration all over the world, influencing the views on art and the beauty of numerous generations. The design of St Peter’s Basilica has influenced the design of such magnificent buildings as St.Paul’s Cathedral in London and the Pantheon in Paris.

Description

Petra is a wonderful and highly unusual ancient city which was built in narrow canyons of Jebel al-Madhbah some 800 – 1500 m above sea level.

Here over the area of some 20 km² have been discovered remnants of approximately 1000 structures. Only a fifth of these buildings has been explored thus far.

Trade city

City was located at the crossroads of important trade routes – caravan paths between Egypt and Syria as well as Arabia and Mediterranean (the legendary Incense Route). Thus Petra developed as a rich trade city.

In ancient times the city, most likely, was approached from the south. Nowadays tourists enter from the east, through impressive, narrow canyon – Siq. This canyon is approximately 1.5 km long, some 70 m deep and in the narrowest places just 2 m wide.

Water supply

Numerous inhabitants of Petra needed much water and in the desert-like climate this was a major challenge.

Nabateans created an ingenious irrigation system and as a result, the city had a perennial stream and a sufficient amount of water to create a desert oasis. This sophisticated system included water tunnels, pipes, and more than 200 cisterns. Nabateans managed to collect in the city water from all surroundings up to 25 km far.

Rather often these desert mountains received sudden gushes of rain and flash floods endangered the city in its narrow canyons. Also, this problem was solved – Nabateans built a series of dams and cisterns which stopped the excess water and provided water during the droughts.

Now, as many centuries without proper maintenance have passed, the water management system has gradually degraded and Petra again is endangered by floods.

History

• Mountainous area around Petra has been inhabited for many millenia – already at 7000 BC nearby existed a settlement, now named Beidha. Petra though is much younger.
• Little is known about the beginnings of Petra, even its ancient name is not known.
• Current name – Petra – was given by Ancient Greeks. Greek historian Diodorus Siculus mentions some place named Petra – capital of Nabateans in 312 BC, although there are some doubts whether this is the current Petra.
• It is possible that Petra developed around an important shrine since the 6th or 5th century BC.
• Around this time or somewhat later Petra became the main centre of Nabateans (an ancient Aramaic culture).
• Site is linked to events mentioned in the Bible. Some specialists consider that Jebel al-Madhbah is the fabulous Mount Sinai and thus the valley with the ancient Petra is named also Wadi Musa – Valley of Moses.
• Fast development of Petra started in the 1st century BC. At this time here were built many structures in a distinct Hellenistic style.
• Petra and lands around it were included into the Roman Empire in 106 AD and Petra was capital of the Roman province Arabia Petraea.
• In Roman times Petra flourished and had some 30 – 40 thousand inhabitants.
• Approximately at 235 AD the construction activity in Petra came to a halt, most likely due to some catastrophe or conflicts. This contrasts with the comparatively near Palmyra which in this time continued to flourish and in a way attracted the lost importance of Petra.
• After the decline Petra continued to serve as comparatively important religious centre.

• 

  Christianity was introduced in the 4th century AD, several churches were built here.

• In 363 AD many buildings in the city were destroyed by an earthquake, there was damaged also the sophisticated water supply system.
• Another devastating earthquake took place in 551 AD.
• Islam was introduced here in 629 – 632 when the area was conquered by Arabs.
• Last inhabitants left Petra in 663.
• During the Crusades Petra for a while was under the control of Christians. Since these times in Petra are found also ruins of the castle of Crusaders.
• Ruins of Petra were well known to the people in the Near East and it was a tourist attraction.
• Europeans learned about this site only in 1812, when Johann Ludwig Burckhardt visited and described it.
• Today Petra has turned into a site of mass tourism, it is also a beloved place for the movie industry.

Outstanding buildings

Al Khazneh – the Treasury

When tourists enter Petra through the narrow canyon – Siq, they are greeted by one of the best structures in this ancient city – Al Khazneh. This is the most photographed landmark in Petra.

This giant structure has been cut in rock and is some 40 m tall and 25 m wide. This is an elaborate tomb which most likely was created in the 1st century BC.

Local Bedouins believed that bandits were storing treasure in an unaccessible stone urn of Al Khazneh (The Treasury in Arabic). They tried to get it – there are multiple bullet holes around this urn. In fact there can not be any treasure – urn is not hollowed out.

Roman theater

Further, behind Al Khazneh in the cliff is cut enormous theater. This impressive work was done in Roman times in the 1st century AD, destroying previous rock-cut tombs. Theater had some 5 – 10 thousand seats and was divided from the street with 25 m tall wall.

Earthquake destroyed the theater in 363 and it was rediscovered only in 1961.

Royal tombs

Rock-cut tombs belong to most ancient structures in Petra. There are distinguished several types of these structures – Nabatean and Greco-Roman and diverse interim stages. The oldest Nabatean rock-cut tombs here are from the 6th century BC. Many of these tombs have elaborate facades, especially the later ones which copy the Roman style in architecture.

Most impressive ones (besides Al Khazneh and Ad Deir) are 13 enormous rock-cut grave temples north from the theater. The largest among these tombs is the majestic Palace Tomb which has 49 m wide and 45 m tall facade. Another unusual grave temple is Urn Tomb with impressive arcades. It was turned into a church in 447 AD.

Ad Deir (The Monastery)

Ad Deir is a Nabatean temple devoted to Obodas I – deified Nabatean king who ruled in 96 – 85 BC.

It is another rock-cut structure with 39 m tall and 47 m wide facade. Ad Deir was built in the middle of the 1st century AD. In the 4th century it was used as a Christian monastery.

High Place of Sacrifice

On the summit of Jabal Attuf is located one of sacred Nabatean places – High Place of Sacrifice. It is artificially levelled summit of a mountain with a low sacrifice altar in the middle and two more than 6 m tall obelisks which are carved from solid rock. It is considered that obelisks represent Nabatean gods Dushara and Al Uzza. There are other similar shrines around the town.

Iguazu – the boundary river

Iguazu is a 1,320 km long river, which starts near Curitiba in Brazil. The name of the river, most likely, was given by the speakers of Tupi or Guarani language, where "y" means water and "ûasú" – big.

The river meanders through Paraná plateau, collecting smaller and larger tributaries. Before the falls Iguazu is mighty, approximately 1 km wide river.

At the discharge of Rio San Antonio Iguazu starts to serve as the border of Brazil and Argentina. After 100 km it reaches the rim of Paraná plateau, where the waterfall has formed in a sharp bend of the river.

24 km after the waterfall Iguazu falls into Paraná. In this place meet three countries – Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay. After the falls Iguazu is 125 m wide, but at the mouth – 260 m wide.

Geology of Iguazu Falls

Iguazu Falls have formed on the rim of the basaltic Paraná Plateau, Serra Geral Formation. This volcanic plateau formed in Lower Cretaceous period some 132 million years ago in an enormous volcanic eruption. It is possible that this was the largest eruption in the history of the last several hundred million years.

On the rims of this plateau formed fhousands of waterfalls and impressive cliffs. Not too far (some 40 km) from Iguazu Falls were located Guaíra Falls (Sete Quedas) – the largest waterfall in the world by the volume of water. Unfortunately, it was flooded in 1978 under Itaipu Dam. Another example is the magnificent Canyon of Itaimbezinho with its fantastic waterfalls.

Description and figures

There are several ways to measure and rank waterfalls of the world – by the height, by the width, by the volume of water, by the height of the tallest vertical drop.

Iguazu Falls excel in width and volume.

Width

The width of falls is 2,682 m – this is the widest true waterfall (e.g. excluding those which look more like rapids) in the world.

The width of waterfalls is measured along the rim of the falling water. In the case of Iguazu, this by far is not a straight line: the direct distance between both sides of the waterfall is 1,140 m.

Volume

The average annual flow in falls is 1,746 m³/s. Among the true waterfalls of the world, it is one of the largest, maybe even second to Niagara (2,407 m³/s). Maximum recorded flow is 46,800 m³/s. It was reached in June 2014. To compare this: only the Amazon River has a higher average flow!

At low water the amount of water in the falls decreases significantly. Thus, in the summer of 2006, it was only 300 m³ per second.

Iguazu Falls are wider and more water-rich than the other big fall of the world – Victoria Falls, but does not have uninterrupted water curtain and is not that high. Although this can not be measured, Iguazu Falls seem to be somewhat more photogenic than Victoria Falls.

Height and steps

The height of different parts of Iguazu Falls fluctuates from 60 to 82 m. If compared to the tall waterfalls of the world, this might seem to be a rather low figure – but if we take into account the huge mass of water and width of falls – this is very impressive number!

The configuration of Iguazu walls is complex – in some places the water is falling from one vertical precipice but in some places, there have formed two well-expressed steps and many smaller steps.

Different parts of waterfall

The wildest part of Iguazu Falls is Devil’s Throat (Garganta del Diablo, Garganta do Diabo) – a unique, U-shaped, 700 m long and 150 m wide chasm – an uninterrupted wall of falling water. Approximately one half of the river flows through Devil’s Throat and the border of Brazil and Argentina goes through it.

In Brazil are located some 20% of the total width of falls – but from Brazil open wonderful sights towards Argentina.

Further to the west, behind the San Martin Island in Argentina are located other parts of Iguazu Falls – San Martin Falls, and Adán, Bossetti, Dos Hermanas, Alvar Nuñez, Bernabé Mendez, Mbigua, Chico, and Lanusse Falls. Some smaller cascades are penetrating also San Martin Island – Rivadavía and Escondido Falls. Each of them is beautiful.

No one can say the true number of separate falls. Some say that there are 275 falls but, depending on the water level their number fluctuates from 150 to 300.

Ecosystem and national parks

The beauty of the falls has helped to protect the surrounding forests.

Iguazu Falls are surrounded by subtropical rainforest of Alto Paraná Atlantic forest ecoregion. This ecosystem might be somewhat less diverse than the Amazon rainforest further north. An occasional visitor will not notice this because the diversity of nature here is amazing. In the surrounding forest grow more than 2000 species of vascular plants, here live jaguars, giant anteaters, ocelots, and caymans. Visitors are amazed by the incredible number and diversity of butterflies around the falls.

There is an advantageous competition between Brazil and Argentina about the conservation of natural values around Iguazu Falls. Each country has developed modern tourist infrastructure to manage the huge flow of visitors and – naturally, to earn from this.

Iguazu Falls in Brazil – Iguaçu National Park

Already in the 19th century, in 1876 there started a campaign in Brazil to protect the area around the waterfall. Gradually there was established a nature protected area. A national park was officially established in 1939.

In 1984 this park was included in the UNESCO World Heritage list. Now the area of the park is 1,700 km². The border of the park is easily seen on satellite images: a sharp, direct line between primeval tropical forest and agricultural fields and buildings.

Only 0.3% of the total park area is available to the main flow of visitors.

Iguazu Falls in Argentina – Iguazú National Park

Iguazu Falls is a popular tourist destination since the end of the 19th century. In 1902 there started the first official activities to protect the area around the falls. The national park was established in 1934.

In 1987 this park was included in the extended UNESCO World Heritage monument. Today this park is 550 km² large – and, similar to the situation in Brazil, its borders divide primeval nature from intensely managed lands.

Although Argentina has most of the falls, the access from this country is more complex. An interesting solution to this problem is Paseo Garganta del Diablo – approximately 1 km long footpath across the river until the wild Devil’s Throat. This footpath is accessed with a romantic tourist train.

Legend

Local Guarani Indians tell the following legend about the creation of Iguazu Falls:

Guarani people sacrificed every year a beautiful virgin to the M’Boi – a Serpent God of the Iguazu River. Girls were bred to be sacrificed and people were used to this – no one objected.

Once lived a beautiful girl Naipí. She loved Tarobá – a warrior of the neighboring tribe.

Naipí walked along the Iguazu River and M’Boi saw her reflection in the water and fell in love with her. God demanded that Naipí should be sacrificed and the elders of her tribe were too frightened to object.

Tarobá and Naipí decided to escape with a canoe. Unfortunately, M’Boi noticed them and started to chase them. In spite of the agility of the Serpent God, Tarobá managed to keep ahead of him.

M’Boi became furious and split the earth in front of the canoe. The boat with two lovers fell down the spill of the river. Naipí was turned into a large rock. Tarobá survived the fall by jumping out of the boat before the falls. He saw the transformation of her beloved girl below the fall and rushed towards her… and was turned into a palm tree on the precipice.

Tarobá and Naipí were separated forever – but on sunny days (and clear nights) there is a rainbow from the palm tree to the rock.

References

1. Iguazu, Cataratas del, World Waterfall Database. Accessed in 22.01.2012.
2. Johhny T. Cheng. Iguazu Falls (Iguazú Falls, Iguassu Falls, Iguaçu Falls, or Yguazú Falls), World of Waterfalls. Accessed in 22.01.2012. Numerous images and videos.

Iguazu Falls are included in the following list: