Near Yoro town there happens a heavy rain in May – July. That would be nothing that special – but after this rain, countless small, living fishes are left jumping in the fields as if they have fallen from the sky.

Thunderstorm and fish

This “fish rain” takes place at the beginning of the rainy period somewhere in May – July. There comes a day when in the afternoon comes a frightening, dark cloud with furious lightning and thunder. Downpours of heavy rain and strong winds continue at least 45 minutes and may last even for several hours.

As the storm leaves, people of Yoro pick up baskets and run out to the swampy meadows of La Pantanal at the foot of extinct volcano El Mal Nombre (Bad Word). Hundreds and even thousands of jumping, live fish are found in the wet meadows as if fallen from the sky during the storm. People collect the fish to bring it home and eat – fish is told to have a specific taste, different from the taste of common fish.

To be correct – a major part of fish though is not collected from the ground but is caught in the temporary basins and streams formed by heavy rain.

It is not known when this phenomenon started – first reports are from the middle of the 19th century when first missionary Father Subirana came here. We may believe that this rain has existed before as well.

Popular festivity

Since 1998 there is an organized festival known as “Festival de la Lluvia de Peces” in Yoro city to mark this unusual phenomenon.

Festivity starts early in the morning with a loud wake-up salute and people are called by loudspeakers to attend a fish market at city hall. Fish is a specialty of this festivity, although in general there is sold common fish, not the one which reportedly fell from the sky. Most people see this just as another festivity without too much interest in the traditions of Yoro or the weird natural phenomenon.

Yoro is using this unusual event as a tourism marketing tool. Church also has a say in this festivity – many believe that this miracle is sent by God as a response to the prayer of Father Subirana.

Father Subirana and Jicaques

Spanish priest Father José Manuel (Jesus de) Subirana has been a significant figure in the history of Christianity in Honduras. He arrived in Honduras in 1855 and worked here until his death in 1864, converting to the Christian faith several groups of indigenous people. He is revered as a courageous and fair missionary, helping local people to fight for their rights to the land of their ancestors.

One of such groups of indigenous people were Jicaques who lived around contemporary Yoro and remained independent until the middle of the 19th century. Father Subirana with persuasion and God’s word did what others could not achieve with weapons – he managed to "return" Jicaques to the Christian world. His intents were noble – but nowadays no one speaks in Jicaque language anymore.

Today the name of Father Subirana though is closely linked with the legend of Yoro fish rain, while his real achievements are less remembered. The legend tells the following:

“Father Subirana saw how poor are the people in Honduras and prayed 3 days and 3 nights asking God for a miracle to help the poor people and to provide them food. After these three days and nights, God took note of this, and there came a dark cloud. Lots of tasty fish rained from the sky, feeding all the people. Since then this wonder is repeated every year.”

Is there scientific explanation?

Wondermondo, khem…, does not believe in God. Maybe a little, but not too much. There needs to be scientific explanation without divine intervention.

First – it seems that this phenomenon has not been investigated too much by scientists. There are rumors about an expedition organized by the National Geographic Society in the 1970s, who were eyewitnesses to the fish rain. Unfortunately, there can not be found an article about this in "National Geographic Magazine".

The information about the fish is contradicting. All agree that it is rather small, some 12 – 15 cm long and might be a kind of sardine. Some say that fish is blind – but in pictures, there are well-seen eyes. Some say that this is freshwater fish, some – that is a sea fish, some – that it is subterranean fish. Again – all agree that this kind of fish is not seen in waters around Yoro. Sardines live in the sea but occasionally they migrate by rivers inland, also in Honduras.

Brought here by waterspout?

First seemingly obvious explanation would be – fish is "caught" in the sea by powerful waterspout, sucked up in the clouds and then shipped directly to Yoro where it rains down.

Waterspouts really have the ability to pump up water with all in it. There are also reports about incredibly large, dense crowds of sardines seen elsewhere in the oceans – thus theoretically waterspout could meet such sardine run and bring them directly to the sky. There is also an occasional tale about a man whose finger was broken by a falling sardine near Yoro.

But there are needed too many unique coincidences to believe that yearly fish rain is made possible by tornadoes. Judge yourselves:

• Once per year in May – July there should come a tornado or groups of tornadoes in the seas next to Honduras.
• These tornadoes should find a sardine run. Sardine runs are not that frequent.
• Sardines should be brought up in the clouds without harming them too much. After all, they are found near Yoro jumping, alive and unharmed.
• This heavenly aquarium should safely float at least 75 km towards Yoro. Exactly towards Yoro, passing several mountain ranges, which are higher than Yoro.
• As the cloud reaches Yoro, it should rain down there, a bit southwest from the town. Some try to explain this by the presence of iron ore near the city – it starts to thunder and thunder starts the rain.
• Fish should be lowered in a gentle way so that they can stay alive and jump in the grass while waiting for people with baskets.
• All fish safely land in meadows. None are found on the roofs of the buildings.

Sounds credible? Definitely not.

Subterranean fish?

As the waterspout hypothesis loses credibility, there is another, more credible explanation.

It happens that in the cave streams deep below the land surface live specific fish, sometimes unknown to people above.

One such example is Delminichthys adspersus (Heckel, 1843) living in Crveno Jezero, Croatia. In dry springs this fish has been occasionally caught in springs near Crveno Jezero – most likely the falling level of water forces the fish to look for other habitats.

Something similar seems to be going on in Yoro – as the dry period of the year is coming to the end, crowds of subterranean fishes seem to be desperate enough to seek water wherever it is.

Sudden downpour of rain washes out this fish through unknown spouts from their unknown subterranean rivers to the meadows near Yoro. Stormwater floats over the meadows and then disappears leaving helpless – but otherwise unharmed – fish jumping on the grass or in temporary basins.

This idea is further supported by the fact that no one has really seen fish falling from the sky.

There are unclear issues regarding this hypothesis as well:

• Are there large subterranean rivers in Yoro able to sustain thousands of fish? None is found thus far (but has anyone looked for them?). Honduras is very rich in caves, most are unknown to speleologists.
• Collected fishes seem to have eyes and eyewitnesses tell that the eyes are lucid and moving. Pictures often show fish with white eyes but locals tell that it is because images show fish that is dead for some hours. Fishes in subterranean rivers on contrary are blind and some even do not have eyes.

Migration of sardines?

There is one more explanation – that swarms of sardines come from the sea and migrate 200 km upstreams in Aguán River and are washed on meadows during the flash floods caused by heavy rain. After all, thus far they have been swimming safely thanks to the dry period and were caught by flood without caveat – sardines do not know too much about rivers and floods.

Although somewhat boring, this last hypothesis seems more credible. But it has some flaws as well and the main is – it is not proven yet.

Thus Yoro Fish Rain still is not explained.

References

1. Lluvia de peces en Yoro, Univision.com. Accessed on November 28, 2010. Many images!

Yoro Fish Rain is included in the following article:

Active stratovolcano

Poas volcano is a 2,708 m high stratovolcano – e.g. conical volcano made of material erupted by the volcano itself. The volcano is erupting diverse lavas – in this respect, it is called a basaltic-andesite volcano.

Poas volcano is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Costa Rica with a well-developed tourism infrastructure and preserved by the Poás Volcano National Park (area 6,500 ha). Tourists are attracted by the unusual diversity of landscape: here the lush tropical forest is located next to a lifeless landscape created by acid fog.

Summit contains three craters with lakes. Here are also eight water-filled maars. Maars are created by spectacular phenomenon: as larger amounts of groundwater reached hot magma or lava, there rapidly formed steam, virtually blowing up the ground and leaving a hollow which later filled up with water.

Lower northern flank of Poás contains another volcano – Congo stratovolcano.

Poás is very active – there are known 39 pronounced eruptions since 1828 when the observations started. The last large eruptions took place in 1952 – 1954. Some specialists consider that the volcano is heading towards a large eruption. But between the eruptions there is no calm either: almost continuously something interesting is happening here.

In the southern part of the volcano is located Lake Botos – a beautiful crater lake surrounded by impressive tropical cloud forest, located 870 m above sea level. This is a more ancient crater that last erupted some 7,500 years ago. For the most part, it behaves like a common lake but sometimes the water gets heated for several degrees by volcanic heat.

In the north is located the most interesting feature of Poas volcano – some 1.7 km wide and 290 – 300 m deep, active crater with Laguna Caliente – one of the largest lakes of acidic brine on Earth. This lake is located some 2300 m above sea level, although the level is changing.

Laguna Caliente – lake of acid

Hot Lagoon (Laguna Caliente in Spanish) is one of the most acidic natural lakes in the world. The pH of this lake often is close to 0 (for example in 1993, 1994, and 2000) and no aquatic life has been found in it. No wonder – in comparison, the car battery acid is a lot less acid – around 1 of pH.

Bottom of the lake contains a layer of liquid sulfur.

Lake is very variable – sometimes 40 – 50 m deep, but sometimes it disappears entirely. The diameter of the lake may reach 250 – 300 m. Temperature of brine in it sometimes is 22°C but sometimes it rises up to 94°C.

Fascinating is the diversity of colors of the lake. It might be emerald green but some three hours later – grey-whitish. Sometimes rafts of brilliant, yellow sulfur are seen floating in the lake.

Phreatic explosions

As if this is not spectacular enough – Laguna Caliente often experiences impressive phreatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions. This is caused by the magma reaching the water – extreme heat instantly turns the water and acid into explosive steam and the lake blows up like a giant geyser.

Tourist booklets and Websites announce often that Laguna Caliente IS a geyser. This is wrong – geysers are powered by a somewhat different mechanism.

Phreatic explosions in Laguna Caliente are very diverse. Thus on September 28, 1972, there was observed that the central part of the lake surged for some 2 meters and then fell back, causing large waves. Lake color changed from turquoise to dark grey. In the middle of December 1977, a column of water and mud was ejected more than 1 km high and then fell down, covering a large area around the summit of the volcano. Rather often phreatic explosions throw up the acid water more than 200 – 300 meters high.

In 1978 – 1980 crater lake behaved like a giant geyser – for two periods of time, it was periodically, some 9 – 50 times per day, ejecting ash and mud 5 – 300 m high. In August 1988 the geyser-like activity of the lake took place every third minute, fountains were up to 30 m high.

In March – April 1989 the lake disappeared completely, leaving pools of bright yellow, bubbling sulfur. At the southern side of the lake formed chimneys of sulfur which were emitting gases, some with the sound of jet aircraft.

Then, in April 1990 in the site of the lake was noticed up to 10 m high fountains of pure liquid sulfur, also bluish sprays of sulphuric acid.

Five years later, in the summer of 1995 the lake was back, sky blue, with comparatively low temperature and nearly clean water in it. It is noticed that every time, when the lake recedes, in the sites of geyser-like eruptions are formed yellow sulfur cones and chimneys with bubbling sulfur inside.

On January 13, 2008, a group of tourists with awe looked at some 200 m high column of water and acid rising from the lake.

Acid rain from Poas volcano

A lake filled with acid is highly unusual – no wonder that there are unusual effects in the surroundings of it as well. One such effect is frequent acid rain and fog, eliminating life in a larger area around the lake. The acidity of rain is higher and more pronounced when the level of the lake is lower – then more sulfur is blasted by fumaroles directly in the air. This shows that Laguna Caliente at high water is a very efficient collector of magmatic gases.

Elsewhere in the world the acidity of the rain normally is a bit more than 5.7 of pH. There are exceptions and the most extreme ones were created by humans: in Los Angeles, there has been measured fog with acidity 2.0 of pH – this is similar to the acidity of lemon juice.

Close to the Laguna Caliente the acidity of fog and rain is similar – around 2.0 of pH and maybe even less. The ruling winds here are blowing to the west. As a result around the crater and to the west from it, there has formed some 3.5 km long and 1 km wide, lifeless, naked scar surrounded by jungle.

Effects of the volcanic acid rain extend far beyond this scar. One of such effects is “stunted forest”. Diverse plants grow in the fertile volcanic soil under the otherwise favorable climate – but they frequently get sprayed with volcanic acid. As a result, the leaves of plants are burned and shoots damaged and trees and bushes grow crooked and undersized.

Unfortunately people living and working close to the volcano experience the effects of acid rain and fog too – and it may be far from pleasant.

Acid rain has often damaged the crops and fruits in the vicinities of the volcano. Due to the acid the farm equipment, cars, and home utensils become rusty, roofs of the buildings are damaged. Often tourists have been rescued from the nature trails to avoid potential health problems due to acid fog – sometimes tourists have been running out of the fog coughing and with runny eyes.

In April – October 1988 the acid rain consisted of small mud droplets covering everything in high density. Park guards experienced constant headaches, stomach problems, and serious irritation of mucous skin – happily, there was no long-term effect on their health. Dead birds were seen. Visitors of the park experienced eye and respiratory irritation.

In January – June 1989 toxic and acidic fog brought suffering to the inhabitants of nearby towns – they suffered from eye and throat irritation. Acid fog covered cars and houses with fine sulfur dust. In March 1992 the acid dust impaired the vision of people in the vicinities of the volcano and in May – July 1994 caused extensive damage to fields, forests, cars.

Orchids and unique squirrel

In spite of this extreme and rare meteorological phenomenon the surroundings of Poas volcano are covered with lush, very diverse tropical forest. Numerous rare and exotic species of plants and animals are found here.

Acid rain has created a unique biotope southwest from the Laguna Caliente at the height of 2,500 – 2,600 m. This biotope is disturbed by the acid and this has led to much lower species diversity in this location. The trees here look like bonsai, are low, on some areas here totally are missing bromeliads which elsewhere are very common. The forest canopy here is not continuous.

Exactly in this place is observed a very rare squirrel – Bangs’s mountain squirrel (Syntheosciurus brochus Bangs, 1902) – often identified as a subspecies – Syntheosciurus brochus poasensis. This animal is found in the mountain rain forest of three volcanos – two in Costa Rica and one in Panama. Here, on the summit of Poas volcano, it is the most frequently seen animal.

In areas with less frequency of acid rain the plant diversity is considerably higher – the lower montane forest is very rich with orchids and bromeliads, tree ferns, and the spectacular poor man parasol (Gunnera insignis Oerst. 1857.)

References

1. Global Volcanism Program, Poás. Accessed on October 14, 2010
2. Image of phreatic eruption, Laguna Caliente.. Accessed on October 15, 2010
3. O.Vaselli, F.Tassi, A.Minissale, G.Montegrossi, E.Duarte, E.Fernandez & F.Bergamaschi, Fumarole migration and fluid geochemistry at Poás volcano (Costa Rica) from 1998 to 2001.. Included in "Volcanic Degassing". Accessed on October 23, 2010

Poas Volcano and Laguna Caliente are included in the following articles:

Spooky lights

Hessdalen is a remote and comparatively desolate, beautiful valley southeast of Trondheim. Valley is some 12 kilometers long and here live approximately 200 people.

Weird lights have been reported here since the 1940s (others mention even more than 100 years old reports). But in December 1981 something unusual started in Hessdalen – some 15 – 20 times per week spooky, big, and bright balls of light appeared above the valley. Sometimes these balls were standing still for more than one hour, sometimes they were slowly floating around. There were times when the light moved very fast. At one time radar fixed 8 500 m/s fast movement: 8 – 9 times faster than the fastest airplane in the world.

Weird illuminations of Hessdalen continued nearly every night until the summer of 1984 and lots of tourists came here to see this marvel. Then the activity decreased and now the lights are observed some 10 – 20 times per year.

For most times Hessdalen light is seen far away. Often it is seen in the valley, closer to the treetops, but sometimes it is high in the air. There is seen one light but sometimes can be several, it happens that one light divides into two.

Light, for the most part, is yellow or white. Sometimes is seen short-lived flashing blue-white light fast floating high in the air. Rarely is observed also yellow light with flashing or constant red light above it.

Rarely there has been reported also a black, mysterious flying mechanism with lights – no wonder that many consider that the Hessdalen lights are created by UFOs.

There are no known cases when these lights have interacted with people or done any damage.

Scientific research has shown that rather often the phenomenon is confused with other, more common lights – car headlights, meteors, airplanes, planets, also some specific rare mirages. But, for the most part, the lights cannot be explained by these factors.

Recognition by scientists

Although Hessdalen lights were seen by thousands of people, there was no obvious explanation for this phenomenon. Due to this scientists initially did not make many scientific investigations: it is easy to lose the hard scrabbled scientific reputation after getting into headlines of yellow press next to the stories about ghosts and UFOs.

In 1983 though there was started a research project – "Project Hessdalen" by Dr. Erling Strand and his team. In 1994 there was organized the first scientific congress about the Hessdalen phenomenon, which in a way helped to recognize that Hessdalen lights are a real phenomenon requiring further research. By this time there was collected evidence – movies, pictures, sightings on radars which proved that this is not some delusion created by human psychology but a real, physical entity.

“Project Hessdalen” nowadays has evolved into an amazing international scientific project involving numerous scientists, state-of-the-art technologies, and lots of scientific publications. Leading institutions in this work are Østfold University College in Norway and the Italian National Research Council. Most likely nowhere else in the world unexplained phenomena have been that much researched by recognized, respectable scientists.

Hessdalen lights test the limits of modern science

Great addition to the scientific research program of Hessdalen lights was the Automatic Measurement Station (Hessdalen AMS or "Blue Box") which was installed here in 1998. This is an exciting joint Norwegian – Italian project, implementing several new technologies for the detection of optical and radio magnetic radiation. Hessdalen AMS takes the lights on movies and pictures (see the results, for example, for the year 1999 here). It records also weather conditions and electromagnetic radiation and measures changes in the magnetic field of Earth.

Interesting feature is another device installed in this station – a random event generator which at certain moments and places supposedly is not that random. This last device is part of a global network of such generators – Global Consciousness Project.

Nearly every year Hessdalen valley is visited by groups of scientists and students, installing new equipment and making field observations. There was made EMBLA program that brings together established scientists and students in the research of this unexplained phenomenon.

The research seems to be promising – this unexplained light phenomenon might bring new concepts in physics or maybe – other sciences.

Interesting twist in the research of lights is the involvement of astronomers – these scientists have used to work with very unusual physical phenomena like pulsars, neutron stars, and others. The existence of Hessdalen lights for astronomers is just one more unexplained but real manifestation of the endless diversity of the Universe.

During the conference of 1994 several world-famous scientists considered that current science can not explain Hessdalen lights and further advance in physics is required to understand it. There is a lot still to be discovered and researched in this world.

EMBLA research shows that there might be several distinct phenomena observed in Hessdalen. Lights are elusive – their physical characteristics change significantly and there is no single "fingerprint". Hessdalen lights may change color, and they may (and may not) collect pieces of energy or plasma from the ground while flying by, spectra of optical and radiofrequency of these lights are very diverse.

Thus far scientists have proposed multiple hypotheses to explain Hessdalen lights. Some are really exotic: thus, for example, it has been proposed that lights are created by the ignition caused by the presence of scandium – a very rare metal. This seems to be far from correct – for example, scandium is found in higher densities elsewhere, and in these places, there is no observed phenomenon.

References

1. Project Hessdalen, official website. Accessed on October 10, 2010.
2. Bjørn Gitle Hauge, 10 years of scientific research of the Hessdalen phenomena, International Meeting "Le Ricerca Italiana nella Valle di Hessdalen, Norvegia (*)", 2004. Accessed on October 10, 2010.

Similar phenomena described by Wondermondo

• Naga fireballs of Mekong are seen above the Mekong on the border between Thailand and Laos. These are red balls of light rising up from the waters of Mekong, especially frequent at a full moon in October. There is no convincing explanation for these lights.
• Chir Batti in India, Gujarat are balls of light floating near the ground level around the plains of Banni grasslands. These lights were noticed here already in ancient times. There is no scientific explanation for this phenomenon.
• Paasselkä devils in Finland are light balls of unexplained origin. They are observed over the surface of Lake Paasselkä for at least 100 years.

Hessdalen lights are included in the following list:

No wonder that for centuries the ancient road was lined with corpses of dead pack-animals. Also nowadays Markansu desert (reportedly in the Kyrgyz language – "creek of tornadoes" or "creek of death", also "dead water") leaves a somber feeling.

Extreme weather

There are several reasons why Markansu valley is so specific.

One is the following: the valley is located 4 kilometers above sea level. At such height in these latitudes, the plant and animal life is left below in valleys and the plains are nearly lifeless.

Here should be mentioned interesting find: in 1957 archaeologist Vadim Ranov found here a 9,500 – 8,500 years old Neolithic summer settlements (the most famous is Oshkona – Ошхонa) with fireplaces where charred remnants of birch and juniper were found. Some scientists are convinced that back then Markansu valley was even 600 m lower than now (ie. it has been rising 5 – 7 cm every year) – otherwise people and trees cannot live here. Tectonic movements of high speed are not uncommon in this area – but it is not proven yet that Markansu Valley really experiences a fast upward rise lasting for thousands of years.

Another reason for extreme weather conditions is the following: this highland valley is surrounded by mountains – but not entirely. There is formed a singular likeness to wind tunnel: cold air masses from the Pamir Plateau are pushed through this comparatively narrow valley towards Xingjiang. Air is extremely dry – often the annual precipitation is less than 30 mm – thus Markansu Desert gets less precipitation than any other desert in Central Asia.

Markansu desert is some 30 km long and 1 – 2 km wide valley. It is flat, lifeless plain covered with a thin layer of sand and pebbles and black stones below it. The plain is crossed by a perennial stream – Markansu creek. For the most part of the year, this stream is dry or frozen. Plain contains occasional, wind polished, 20 – 30 m high hoodoos.

Valley is surrounded by bleak mountains rising some 500 m high. The sky above is unusually dark blue but the air closer to the land surface is filled with dust.

Often at forenoon the valley is silent. This is dead, depressive silence. In the afternoon the wind starts. It is very strong and there is no place to hide from it. The wind rises the dust and in stronger storms, it is not easy to orientate, it is hard to breathe.

The contrasting temperature of heated land surface and cold wind creates whirlwinds. Countless dust devils rise and they rise the stone shivers from the ground. Strong whirlwinds reach the strength of tornadoes and are very dangerous – there are reports about camels with all their burdens lifted by winds. People believed that these are real, fearsome spirits – jinns.

Valley is also extremely cold. Further south, in the mountains at Bulunkul there has been registered -63°C temperature – the lowest registered temperature outside the polar regions. But also in Markansu there are registered -40°C, while in summer days the sun might be scorching hot and the surface heats up to 60 – 70 °C hot. Even in summer, the temperature falls below zero at night. Winter lasts here from October to April.

Cursed valley

Local people and traveling traders considered that this valley is cursed and tried to cross it as fast as possible. Every traveler (also nowadays) reports a dreary, depressive feel of this location.

The ancient route of caravans was positioned similar to the current road. Caravans often perished here and this was considered one of the most dangerous parts of the Great Silk Road. In spite of the macabre fame, this valley was the simplest path to enter the Tarim Basin from the west, used by caravans until the early 20th century.

Danger was created exactly by the meteorological conditions. Pack-animals died here very often and at some moments in history, the path was full with skeletons of these animals – mainly horses and camels, at some places forming heaps of bones. Dry and cold climate often led to the mummification of corpses and preserved traces of past tragedies for long centuries.

In the 1930s, when the road was built here, these bones were removed.

Marco Polo described that here have been found numerous horns of mountain sheep. This is explained by hunting methods where herds of mountain sheep are driven to the base of steep cliffs and killed. Heads of male sheep are cut off and left here due to heavy horns. A dry and cold climate preserves them well. According to Marco Polo, shepherds use these horns for their everyday needs – like bowls, and dishes, and even as a building material for enclosures of their herds.

More appalling is another find – a group of dead mountain sheep and not far from them – several dead wolves. Who knows why these animals perished – but death came fast and unexpectedly.

As if nature hasn’t tried hard enough to create a somber landscape, Markansu valley is crossed by a kind of "Great Anti-Chinese Wall" built by the Soviet Union in the 1960s. This is a long fence stretching through Central Asia to Mongolia. It was built in the period when Soviet – Chinese relations were strained. This fence has signalization and border guards (in other regions, where is more life) have enough work while checking false alarms created by animals.

Markansu Desert is included in the following articles:

Nowadays, when people have no logical explanation for the existence of spirits and ghosts, this light phenomenon is very intriguing. It is observed rather often nowadays as well.

Impact crater

Specialists had a supposition that the large, deep Paasselkä lake has been formed by a meteorite. Geological investigations in 1999 proved it – this enormous depression was created by a large meteorite hitting the Earth approximately 229 million years ago, in the middle-late Triassic period.

Paasselkä lake has a roughly circular form and has no islands in the central part, it is unusually deep – up to 75 m. Through several channels, this lake is connected with other lakes of this area, forming a part of the picturesque Greater Saimaa complex.

Light balls over the lake

Light phenomena over the Paasselkä lake have been observed for centuries (mentioned in written sources since the 18th century) but in recent years the interest was revived by a wonderful book of the enthusiast of local history Sulo Strömberg. This book, issued in 2006, contains a collection of the stories of eyewitnesses who have seen these lights.

Eyewitnesses tell that Paasselkä devil can be seen at night and looks like a ball of bright light. It is not easy to determine the size of these formations: for the most part, they are seen at a great distance, hovering above the lake. It is assumed that they reach the size of a football.

For the most part, these balls are white, also red ones have been seen. Eyewitnesses tell that the light is very bright, much more powerful than the distant lights of car headlamps, driving along the lake.

In most cases they are seen over the lake, but there are cases when these lights have been seen also in nearby forests and marshes. For the most part, is seen one light, but there might be several.

Paasselkä devil can be calm, resembling a bright lantern. But these seemingly calm lights might start to move around very quickly.

Local people report that sometimes these lights behave as if they have their own will. They might follow the boats of fishermen, it has been also observed that lights evade from the beam of the torch.

Thus once, at the beginning of the 20th century a group of people was returning with a boat from a wedding. They noticed the light hovering above the lake and decided to approach it. As they did it, the light moved away for several hundred meters very fast and was standing calm again.

In earlier times local people considered that these are some evil spirits, there are known cases of offerings to Paasselkä devils up to the early 20th century.

Nowadays several tourist companies have included “watching of Paasselkä Devil” in their tours, an additional attraction to the usual fishing tours. From time to time tourist groups report about sightings of this phenomenon, there are taken images and videos.

Convincing explanation to this phenomenon has not been found. There are attempts to explain these lights – like the old and multiple times disproved theory about some easily ignited gases rising from the sediments of the lake or some rare piezoelectric effects.

Similar light phenomena are observed in other regions of the world as well, such as the impressive Chir Batti in Gujarat, India.

Recommended (of you read Finnish)

1. Sulo Strömberg. "Kerimäen ja Savonrannan kyliä kiertämässä. Tarinoita Paasveen piruista ja pohuista" (Around Kerimäki and Savonranna villages. Paasselkä stories about the devil and spirits.), 2006, Tripylon, 106 pages, ISBN 952-92-0751-4.

Similar phenomena described by Wondermondo

• Chir Batti in India, Gujarat are balls of light floating near the ground level around the plains of Banni grasslands. These lights were noticed here already in ancient times. There is no scientific explanation to this phenomenon.
• Hessdalen lights in Norway are balls of light often seen floating in Hessdalen valley. This phenomenon has been researched since 1983 but no explanation has been found thus far.
• Naga fireballs of Mekong are seen above Mekong on the border between Thailand and Laos. These are red balls of light rising up from the waters of Mekong, especially frequent at full moon in October. There is no convincing explanation of these lights.

Paasselkä devils are included in the following article:

Lake of reflections

Roopkund is a small glacial lake in an unexpected location – in a mountain pass, in the saddle between two peaks. Information about the elevation of this lake is controversial: some sources state that the lake is located at 5,029 m height, some – that lake itself is located 4,778 m above the sea level and the nearby Chandinakat peak is 5,023 m high.

For long months this shallow lake is frozen. It is beautiful but there is also some menacing feel in this nearly lifeless place.

Himalaya is extremely rich with legends and the area of Roopkund is not an exception. According to one legend, Nanda Devi and Shiva passed by this area after a successful fight with demons. Nanda Devi wanted to quench her thirst and Shiva created this lake for her. When Nanda Devi bent over the lake, she could see her clear and beautiful reflection – thus the lake got name "Roopkund" (form/shape lake).

Lake of skeletons

In the summer, as the Sun melts the ice around the lake, there opens dreadful sight – bones and skulls of people and horses lying around the lake.

It is not fully clear whether local people knew about this in earlier times or not – but first written reports appear in 1898. In 1942 a ranger of Nanda Devi game sanctuary (now this is a national park) H.K.Madhwal reported about the bones and flesh seen in melting ice and this arose disquiet among military personnel fearing of surprise attack of the Japanese army.

Low temperature, rarified and clean air helped to preserve the bodies of the deceased better than it would happen elsewhere. As the ice melts (nowadays it melts more than before), even flesh is revealed. Ice and landslides have pushed some bones in the lake.

Earlier there were a lot more bones but it seems, that bones and skulls are picked up by passers-by in order to have a ghastly keepsake from this unusual place and nowadays there are far fewer bones visible.

In total here died up to 600 people (thus far identified at least 500 bodies). Initially, researchers were not sure about the reasons for death. Some attributed this to blizzards, in concordance with local legends. Some considered that these people could die from landslides, epidemics (ie. locals brought their deceased ones there after epidemics), or even mass suicide.

Late research with radiocarbon tests shows that these people died sometimes around 850 AD (research was done at Oxford University Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, accuracy +/- 30 years). Analysis of skulls performed in Pune, Hyderabad, and London led to a surprising find – turned out that these people most likely died of a sudden hailstorm. Hailstones in this region might become as large as cricket balls (ie. 7 cm diameter). Thus during one such terrible storm large group of people died here without finding safe shelter. Some examined skulls were fractured but some even had holes. Injuries were seen mostly in the upper part of skulls, while other bones were less damaged. This most likely was caused by blunt, hard objects falling from above.

Further analysis shows that there were rather diverse people. DNA analysis hints at specific mutations observed in people living in Maharashtra (at Roopkund were found family members of Kokanastha Bramins) as well as few local people. There were found children, women. The analysis shows that these people for weeks were walking without proper food.

Here have been found even pieces of clothing, glass beads (ie. women were present), ring, spear.

Legendary royal piligrims

Local legends have the following explanation:

A king of Kannauj (ancient land south of Gharval Himalaya) Jasdhawal was on an important pilgrimage to praise the Goddess Nanda Devi. Somehow he disregarded the advice of religious counselors and behaved in an arrogant way.

King took all his entourage with him including numerous dancer girls, musicians, servants. Also, his pregnant wife was with him. As they reached Roopkund lake, the queen delivered a child in a cave near the lake (Wondermondo: interesting – could it serve as a shelter for a few people during the hailstorm?).

Goddess Nanda Devi disliked the fact that dancers and musicians entered her sacred land – local customs strictly forbade it. But the worst violation was childbirth on sacred land: according to local customs newborns and their mothers are considered to be unclean for a certain period of time.

Thus Goddess sent a terrible storm on poor pilgrims and they all were killed on spot.

This legend is well known in Himalaya and there is even a traditional song mentioning this event – this song mentions exactly hailstones "hard as iron" raining on the heads of sinners.

Nanda Devi shrine

But there is another myth that needs to be busted. Often it is said that it is absolutely incomprehensible why these hundreds of people were in this particular place because there are no trade or pilgrimage routes.

This is not true. Gharwal Himalaya is home to ancient religion which seems to have its roots in the very ancient worldwide cult of Great Goddess. This is the Nanda Devi cult. In later times it was embraced by the Hindu religion, placing the ancient goddess in the Hindu pantheon, but many local people follow the rites of the original ancient religion up to this day.

Roopkund is located on pilgrimage way leading to one of the most important Nanda Devi shrines. Such shrines have little in common with the later magnificent structures, these ancient shrines for most times are just places, where, for example, opens important view and where, according to legends, important events of religious character have taken place.

Still, approximately once per 12 years Roopkung is passed by groups of local people heading to one such shrine – they are attending in Nanda Devi Raj Jat festivity (next might happen in 2012, but we will see, if the needed attribute – four-horned ram will be born then). This festivity takes place in numerous places in the Kumaon region, but, according to legends, Roopkung in the past was a very important religious site, which nowadays is overshadowed with the more famous Hemkund 50 km to the north.

Thus we might assume that somewhere around 850 AD here was killed a large group of local and foreign pilgrims heading towards the Nanda Devi shrine. There really were women and children in this group but, judging from analysis, they were not having a fun time but rather starving for several weeks.

A note to collectors of bones

This is directed to those airy tourists who pick up occasional bones around Roopkund Lake:

Collecting bones of dead people as souvenirs is a very bad habit. Collecting bones of pilgrims reportedly killed by the Great Goddess for their sins seems to be an even worse idea. Look at some horror movies and think about it.

References

1. Harshwanti Bisht. Tourism in Garhwal Himalaya With Special Reference to Mountaineering & Trekking in Uttarkashi and Chamoli District. 1994. Indus Publishing Company, New Delhi. ISBN 8173870063.
2. William Sturman Sax. Mountain Goddess: Gender and Politics in a Himalayan Pilgrimage. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019506979X.

Roopkund – Skeleton Lake is included in the following article:

Description

Fireballs are observed in some 250 kilometers long sector of Mekong: approximately from Ban Muang upstream from Vientiane down to Bung Kan. Most of them rise from the 500 – 800 m wide Mekong River, but they have been observed rising from smaller ponds and rivers as well. These places might sound exotic and remote to Europeans but they are densely populated, filled with houses, roads, schools, and other usual features of civilization.

These are not some ghosts seen by occasional people and questioned by majority. Ghost fireballs of Mekong have been seen by thousands of people, photographed and captioned on movies, and, after all, investigated by scientists looking for the explanation of this interesting phenomenon.

Phenomenon of Naga fireballs is not too well documented in earlier times. Some say that Wat Luang temple (in Phon Phisai, Wat Pho Luang Phra Sai) contains centuries-old written records mentioning them. There are mentioned also occasional written reports from British soldiers in the 1960s – although nothing concrete is cited. Numerous local people claim that they have seen the lights for all their lives and their parents and grandparents did it as well.

Although the appearance of fireballs is celebrated on certain days in October, in fact, this event is not predictable. There have been cases when the official festivity “ends without results” and fireballs come unexpectedly on another night. Many people have tried hard to see them for years without success, many are lucky and see them at the first visit to this site. For example, in 2001 there were reported 3,000 fireballs, the festivity of 2004 was disappointing in this respect but in 2008 the illumination was excellent.

Ghostly fireballs can be seen at different times of the year but most frequently they are in late October – early November when the long period of rains has ended and the Mekong is filled with lots of fast-flowing, muddy water.

Balls seem to be rising out of the water (some skeptics though say that it looks more like going up on the Laotian side of the river). They appear in different places, but sometimes several come out from a single place.

Phaya Naga – king of serpents

Since ancient times numerous people have been living along the Mekong. According to some reports, as recently as in the 1980s these balls of light attracted little attention from local people (3). It could be possible that there are some ancient myths related to this event which later have been nearly forgotten by local people and then somehow revived.

Whatever the history of this myth but one is clear – since the early 1990s Mekong fireballs gradually became famous and simultaneously there were attached myths to them. One of these myths:

One particular naga (a kind of snake or dragon) loved to crawl around the mountains right in the place where the Mekong flows today. This outstanding naga still continues to travel her usual route – now underwater and spits flames wherever it goes – as all respectable dragons do.

There is involved also Buddhism in this story, making it more complex – although local Buddhist monks seem to be spectators of the show and not active promoters of it. This "Buddhist" myth has involved the ominous Phaya Naga – serpent-king of the underworld – in making of these fireballs. Phaya Naga in this story turns out to be an ally of Buddha. Buddha and Phaya Naga in their mythical battles obtained a blessing for local people – regular periods of rain. As the rain ends, Buddha returns to Earth from heaven and Phaya Naga greets him with fireballs.

Festivity

There is a traditional and well-proven method to facilitate tourism anywhere in the world, which works especially well in southern Asia: if your locality happens to have some interesting natural phenomenon, find a religious explanation to this and organize yearly festivities to celebrate it.

In the case of Phon Phisai town in Thailand (and several other towns along the Mekong) naga fireballs have been perfectly well suited. Fireballs are most frequent at the end of October – thus exactly then is organized the religious Phaya Naga festival.

This coincides very well with an important event in the Buddhist calendar – the end of vassa: three months-long period of a kind of fasting. The end of vassa – Wan Awk Pansa – is a joyous festivity of the people of Isan (Northeast Thailand) and Laos. This festivity in a way marks the end of a long rain period. Staying out in the evening after the long rains finally is pleasant and the moon over the Mekong makes this time romantic.

Festivity is organized at a full moon. Somehow the determination of full moon has ended up in a situation where Thailand celebrates the festivity one day earlier than Laos. Lately, though the festivity is expanding and lasts for several days and nights.

According to locals, festivities have taken place here for many generations – but if there were any festivities before 1990, these were of truly local nature, not known elsewhere. But in the early 2000s, the festivity at the Mekong came into vogue.

Thus, at the end of every October tens of thousands of people flock to Phon Phisai and other Thai and Laotian towns along the Mekong. In 2002 – 2004 there were hundreds of thousands of people coming. They take the “best places” along the river.

Earlier people just walked at the bank of Mekong and looked at occasional fireballs rising up. Nowadays there is organized a festive program with the great Mekong in focus: in the river are floating beautiful illuminated boat processions and river receives offerings – mainly sweets. Numerous other events take place, as is usual in popular festivals.

But the main event is the appearance of fireballs. Thousands of people look with awe at them rising up in the air as fast as sparks from the campfire. On some nights thousands of such weird sparks rise out from the waters but sometimes – none. People cheer the lights with joy and feel happy to be together at this mystery.

Scientists get involved

Contrary to most of the other ghostly apparitions around the world, Naga fireballs have been observed by thousands of people and captured in numerous photographs and movies.

Most local people believe in the mythical explanation involving nagas. In 2002 there arose a scandal when independent Thai TV channel iTV reported that they observed the following: each time when Laotian soldiers shot some tracer bullets in the air, the Thai side of the river was greeting this with cheerful shouts. TV reporters thus proved that sometimes "fake" naga balls are greeted.

This report met with stiff resistance of local people expressing even hate towards iTV.

Government of Thailand decided that scientists should be involved to provide an explanation. A kind of "dreamteam" of Thai experts was established, at the same time raising heated debates about the intrusion of science in traditional myths.

In 2003 thermal scanners and five teams of scientists were stationed in several spots along the river in Rattanawapi district (Thailand). A team was located also at the most famous observation spot – at the Naga temple in Phon Phisai town. There were rumors about the involvement of specific submarines in research.

Some scientific reports mention an upward movement of gas bubbles in Mekong water. According to them – as the gas bubbles reached the surface, the gas started to burn and rose up like a glowing orange bubble.

Phosphine? Methane?

Earlier some scientists considered that the most likely reason for flames is phosphine (PH₃). This gas, especially in the presence of the diphosphine (P₂H₄), is capable of spontaneous flammability. Thus one can assume that bubbles of this substance may arise from the sediments of Mekong and, as it reaches the atmosphere, burn with a yellow-orange flame. A small amount of this substance quickly is consumed in flames, and, as the burning bubble rises up in the air, it disappears.

Possible source of phosphine might be a chemical reaction in the river sediments – a bacterial reduction of phosphate in decaying organic matter.

Often is mentioned another gas – methane, which, theoretically, if mixed with the same phosphine and some other gases at very specific conditions may experience spontaneous ignition.

…or hoax?

There remained unsolved issues though:

• Phosphine is not a light gas, it is heavier than air. Naga lights though rise up in the air very quickly.
• When phosphine burns, it produces a dense, white, and highly toxic cloud. None of these effects (luckily) have been observed on Mekong.

Thus the hypothesis of phosphine is rejected and specialists focus more on other self-inflating gases: burning gas seems to be the most logical explanation for Mekong fireballs. But – even if scientists find another igneous gas rising from the sediments of Mekong – why don’t we observe a similar phenomenon elsewhere – in other tropical rivers and lakes? How can a bubble of gas rise up that quickly without being extinguished?

Some consider that these igneous gases are somehow pulled out of the river sediment by the full moon and some researchers even build up highly complex theories involving the specific composition of gases in sediments coupled with the action of the moon, ultraviolet rays, Sun, etc. All of this at the end looks too laborious and unlikely.

Also the imaginary organic sediments of Mekong seem not to exist – the river here, for the most part, has a sandy bed with occasional rocks.

Popular Thai movie "15 Kham Duan 11" ("The 15th of the 11th Lunar Month", made in 2002) offers another explanation – here Laotian monks place clay eggs on the river bed – these rise to the surface and there light up. There are though serious drawbacks in this fine movie, which seem to make this proposed explanation flawed (if art is taken seriously): more or less safe and controlled diving in this muddy, powerful river is nearly impossible with modern diving gear.

Often it is considered that fireballs are created artificially – just like some people find fun in making crop circles or other weird things. Now it is essential to keep the big festivities running – after all this event has been turned into a highly profitable show (but spread among huge local communities – which isn’t bad at all). One can easily see that there might be a commercial interest to "maintain" this phenomenon artificially.

In addition to this – some locals tell that in earlier times naga fireballs were much smaller and nearly white, they rose above the water just for a few meters. Now, with increased popularity, they somehow have evolved, increased in size, fly high and fast, and have an orange color. A bit heretical thought – maybe naga serpent has changed diet?

Hoax is impossible?

Locals deny a possibility of the hoax – naga fireballs often are observed in very secluded places where the putative "organiser" of fireballs has nearly no chances to impress anyone. It is just weird to imagine countless Thai and Laotian people keeping themselves busy by making illuminations in remote lakes and rivers.

Appearance of fireballs has been reported in more than 45 kilometers long section of river in one night. The river has been closely watched by numerous people for many days before. In such circumstances the possibility of fraud seems to be quite low – who would manage to organize such illumination without getting caught in the act?

Naga fireballs rose from the river during the hostilities between Thailand and Laos: the border was heavily guarded then and it is little likely that somebody would risk his life to organize the fraud.

Legend of modern times

Wondermondo will not present judgment about the source of naga balls. One should be recognized – if this is a hoax, it is organized very well and there are lots of people who are happy to believe in this.

But maybe naga fireballs are real, natural mysterious light effects – so-called Earthlights (see another example – Chir Batti)? Riddles posed by these phenomena are not that easy to solve.

References

1. Highly critical view to Naga fireballs: The Naga Fireballs. Skeptoid, Critical Analysis of Pop Phenomena. Accessed in the 23rd September 2010.
2. Thailand’s Naga Fireballs declared not supernatural. Originally published by The Nation, 12 October 2003. Accessed in the 23rd September 2010.
3. Erik Cohen. Explorations in Thai Tourism. The "Postmodernization" of a Mythical Event: Naga Fireballs on the Mekong River. 2008.

Similar phenomena described by Wondermondo

• Hessdalen lights in Norway are balls of light often seen floating in Hessdalen valley. This phenomenon has been researched since 1983 but no explanation has been found thus far.
• Chir Batti in India, Gujarat are balls of light floating near the ground level around the plains of Banni grasslands. These lights were noticed here already in ancient times. There is no scientific explanation to this phenomenon.
• Paasselkä devils in Finland are light balls of unexplained origin. They are observed over the surface of Lake Paasselkä for at least 100 years.

Naga Fireballs of Mekong are included in the following article:

Banni grasslands

Marshy, desolate wetlands – Banni grasslands – rise just a few meters above the sea level – although the sea is some 80 km far from here.

Earlier the giant Indus River was flowing in the plains of Rann of Kutch – but after the great earthquake of 1816, the river changed its route and moved 100 km to the west. Several rivers have deposited here thick sediments over many thousands of years.

Soil here is salty and cannot sustain rich vegetation – thus the area is without trees, and plant cover is sparse.

In the grasslands are located several lagoons. Although the vegetation is sparse, the area is rich with life – numerous rare birds and animals. Over the last decades, Banni grasslands gradually turn into a destination for eco-tourists.

100 km to the east there are the ruins of the ancient Dholavira – a metropolis of Indus Valley Civilization, occupied 4,500 years ago.

If you happen to be there, try the beautiful Hodka resort created by the indigenous people of the region – amazing and beautiful round mud huts characteristic of the local unique culture of Maldharis.

Description of lights

Chir Batti phenomenon starts in the darkness, reportedly only after 8 PM.

Several reports about sightings come from the surroundings of the extinct Kiro (Keero, Khiero) volcano west of Charri Dand lagoon but there are reports about the sighting of 4 lights to the northeast from the lagoon on the 23rd of January 2010. It is possible that the surroundings of Kiro get mentioned more often because it is a comparatively popular spot for the search of fossils – Jurassic ammonites and belemnites. After birdwatching around Charri Dand visitors tends to stay in the surroundings of Kiro until the darkness.

Chir Batti are round or pear-shaped balls of fire, glowing like mercury lamps. Their color is white, blue, red, also yellow.

Balls of light are floating above the ground, at 0.6 – 3 m height. Sometimes they are moving around slowly, sometimes – fast as arrows.

Phenomenon continues at least for several minutes. Sometimes is seen one ball of light, sometimes – more (reported 7 balls of light). Sometimes one ball divides into two.

Especially weird is the interaction of lights with visitors. If one walks away, Chir Batti happens to follow him. Around Kiro hill, they may follow up to the nearby Fulay village. But it is never heard that balls of light have done any harm.

There happens another thing – if one decides to follow the ball, the light moves away and the searcher gradually gets away from the road into salt flats or thorny thickets.

There have been attempts to take pictures or movies of Chir Batti but thus far – without success.

History

"Chir Batti" in the local Kutcchi – Sindhi language means "ghost light". Local people have been observing this phenomenon since olden times and are convinced that these are ghosts.

Little was heard about this phenomenon outside this remote area until recent times. As Rann of Kutch and Banni grasslands gained recognition as an important breeding location of rare birds and animals, here came biologists and ecologists and a bit later – nature-loving tourists too.

One of the local long-time biologists – Jugal Tiwari – is the most often cited observer of the Chir Batti phenomenon. He says that has seen the lights more than 100 times. His team was setting out bird traps in the nighttime and was distracted by these weird lights many times.

Phenomenon, of course, is well known also to soldiers of the Indian Border Security Force who patrol the area in the nighttime – they simply have to know what lights appear here in the nighttime. Some consider that the lights somehow are caused by the militaries themselves but eyewitnesses deny it.

Explanations

Banni grasslands by far is not the only location where such phenomenon – sometimes called "Earth lights" – is observed.

Of course, one explanation could be igneous gases. For thousands of years Indus has deposited here millions of tons of organic sediments and it might be logical to assume that methane and related gases are seeping through the ground and somehow ignited. But in such case there would not be observed well-delimited balls of powerful light floating close to the ground for several minutes – such ignitions of methane most likely would be barely visible and, possibly, formed like torchlights.

It seems – there is no scientific exploration yet for this phenomenon.

References

1. GRK Trip Report Dec 2009, Digital Frescos. Accessed on 29 August 2010
2. CHER BATTI The Strange lights of Banni grasslands in Kutch, Gujarat, Message in Yahoo Groups by ecologist Jugal Tiwari. Accessed on 29 August 2010
3. The Banni Grasslands of Kutch, Swati Sani. Accessed on 29 August 2010

Similar phenomena described by Wondermondo

• Hessdalen lights in Norway are balls of light often seen floating in Hessdalen valley. This phenomenon has been researched since 1983 but no explanation has been found thus far.
• Naga fireballs of Mekong are seen above the Mekong on the border between Thailand and Laos. These are red balls of light rising up from the waters of Mekong, especially frequent at the full moon in October. There is no convincing explanation for these lights.
• Paasselkä devils in Finland are light balls of unexplained origin. They are observed over the surface of Lake Paasselkä for at least 100 years.

Chir Batti is included in the following article:

It happens (and rather often), that early in the morning above the surprised spectators "roll" over one or few roll clouds – long, low, narrow clouds resembling giant, up to 1,000 km long ropes. Elsewhere in the world, this is a very rare phenomenon but here it is frequent. This is the only place on Earth where this beautiful natural phenomenon can be predicted.

Weird mornings

Roll clouds usually come here in the dry season, in September – mid-November. In this period Morning Glory clouds are seen often – approximately two times in each five-day period. They might come in any other period of the year as well.

Clouds come early in the morning on days when the air humidity is very high and when on a preceding day have been blowing strong sea breezes. There could be just one roll cloud but could come also seven – eight and more.

Base of these clouds is often just 100 – 200 m above the ground (generally – higher), clouds themselves are approximately 1 km tall, 1 – 2 km wide, and more than 100 km (even up to 1,000 km) long. They move fast – up to 60 km per hour. Each of the clouds comes with sudden wind squalls (10 – 15 m/s) which start with a quick change of wind direction and sharp atmospheric pressure jump. In front of the cloud, there is a strong vertical upward movement of the air. Behind the cloud air sinks again. Thus the cloud rolls against the direction of its movement.

As the cloud is above the head, there sets in an eerie silence.

High moistness is needed to form a cloud. If the air is not moist, air masses behave in a similar way, they just are not "marked" with clouds. Such invisible, unusual whirls of air are especially dangerous for aircraft.

Directions and behavior of rolling clouds are not uniform – every morning they will look different. There are distinguished three directions where they might come from – the most common is from the north-east.

Morning Glory cloud "business" in Burketown

This part of Australia is remote and sparsely populated, there are not that many towns of significant size. This unusual phenomenon, of course, was noticed already long ago. Local Garrawa Aboriginal people called these unusual clouds – "kangólgi", the phenomenon was first described by Australian Royal Air Force personnel in 1942.

One of the few larger settlements is Burketown town and town dwellers have used this unusual tourist attraction.

It all starts with the Burketown Pub, by the way – a value by itself. This pub well serves as a local meteorological forecast system – upward curling of the corners of coffee tables serves as indicators of coming roll clouds. Thus visitors are welcome to sit for a while here, take some drinks, and observe the conduct of the corners of coffee tables.

When it becomes clear that clouds are expected, there is an airfield with aircraft and helpful staff at the disposal of cloud admirers. There are several companies offering their services… but Wondermondo is not exactly a part of the tourist business to list them here.

How does it form?

Many scientists have been researching why Morning Glory clouds are seen exactly at the southern part of Carpentaria Gulf and why they are that rare elsewhere in the world.

It seems, the first researcher was the great Australian meteorologist Reg H. Clarke, who became interested in this phenomenon in late the 1960s – early 1970s.

Since then numerous scientists (such as Doug R. Christie, Robert A. Goler, Julie A. Noonan, Michael A. Page, Anne Porter, Michael J.Reeder, and Roger K.Smith but also many others) have tested their knowledge, and energy in the field research and imagination and proposed different explanations. This research has led to a broader understanding of the application of mathematical modeling in meteorology, boundary layer phenomena in meteorology and other complexities of this science – and at the same time seems that no one is sure that a convincing explanation of Carpentaria Morning Glory has been found.

One of the simpler explanations (by Clarke et al, 1981) sounds like this:

• To the west of the Gulf of Carpentaria is located the wedge-shaped Cape York Peninsula.
• Sea breezes are blowing on both sides of a peninsula – it is large enough to form two independent breezes, one on each side.
• Both sea breezes clash above the middle of the peninsula and rise up.
• This clash and upward movement destabilizes the air masses – condensation of moisture takes place and there forms a cloud, which resembles a spine above the Cape York Peninsula – North Australian Squall Line.
• During the night the air cools down and descends above the peninsula.
• Meanwhile at night the air masses over the Gulf of Carpentaria are inverted – at the water level air is cooler and higher up the air is warmer. (To meteorologists this is inversed layer – because normally warm air is below and cool air is above it.)
• Cooled air from the Cape York Peninsula together with all North Australian Squall Line descends to the Gulf of Carpentaria.
• As this cooled air meets the inversed layer above the Gulf of Carpentaria, it dives below it.
• As the layer from the peninsula is moving under the air masses above the Gulf of Carpentaria, there form a series of waves that somewhat resemble ripples in the lake.
• This movement destabilizes moist air masses and clouds form at the contact of air masses.
• Clouds form exactly in the ripples. As the air masses move, these clouds are rolled between them, like children are rolling plasticine "sausages" with their hands.

Another explanation (Goler and Reeder, 2003) is that the sea breeze from the east is more powerful and warmer and it overpowers the one from the east. As the warmer western sea breeze rolls over the cooler air masses of the eastern breeze, at certain conditions form roll clouds.

Whatever the explanation, conditions over this remote part of Australia seem to be meteorologically unique and do not repeat elsewhere in the world.

References

1. R.H. Clarke, R.K.Smith, D.G.Reid, The Morning Glory of the Gulf of Carpentaria: An Atmospheric Undular Bore, Monthly Weather Review, vol 109. Accessed 24.08.10.
2. Robert A.Goler, Michael J.Reeder, The Generation of the Morning Glory, Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, vol 61. Accessed 24.08.10.

Morning Glory clouds of Carpentaria Gulf is included in the following articles:

We do not know when started the powerful light of Maracaibo Lightning – but this phenomenon has become a part of the tales of indigenous people. Thus, Wari people tell legends about an incredible amount of fireflies who have gathered here to pay tribute to the parents of creation.

Natural lighthouse

Of course, also European intruders noticed this weird, silent, and powerful thunderstorm. It even influenced the history of this part of America. In 1595 the lights of thunder prevented the attack of English pirate, Sir Francis Drake, on Maracaibo – the garrison of the city noticed his ships in the light of distant lightning.

Spanish poet Lope de Vega mentioned this unusual landmark in his epic poem "La Dragontea" in 1597: it tells about the defeat of the hated Francis Drake at Nombre de Dios, Panama.

On July 24, 1823, this light helped again – this time it guided the fleet of Admiral José Prudencio Padilla to his most important battle, leading to the defeat of the Spanish fleet and forcing the Spanish Crown to accept the independence of Venezuela.

People in the state of Zulia keep much pride in this extraordinary landmark and have adorned their flag and coat of arms with lightning, it is mentioned in the state’s anthem.

Scientific research

Catatumbo Lightning was well noticed by famous naturalists like Alexander von Humboldt and Italian geographer Agustin Codazzi who described it as a continuous flash arising from the surroundings of Zulia River.

In the 20th century and the early 21st century such scientists as Melchor Centeno, Andrew Zavrotsky, and Nelson Falcón have researched the mechanism of Catatumbo Lightning.

Melchor Bravo Centeno in 1911 proposed that Catatumbo Lightning is induced by the specific wind regime of this region – and thus far it seems that he is right.

Venezuelan scientist of Russian origin Andrew Zavrotsky (organized three expeditions in 1966 – 1970) identified three epicenters of Catatumbo Lightning in the Swamp National Park Juan Manuel de Aguas, in Claras Aguas Negras and in a location west of Lake Maracaibo. At this time some believed that Catatumbo Lightning may be induced by the evaporation of oil compounds from the Maracaibo Basin. Zavrotsky denied this and considered that even the presence of uranium in the bedrock is a more likely factor than oil. No proof has been found for this hypothesis.

Expeditions by Nelson Falcón, University of Carabobo, and other scientists resulted in one more hypothesis: pyroelectric mechanism. It proposes that winds above the Maracaibo plains collect methane which is considered to be the main cause of the phenomenon. Also, this hypothesis seems to have weak causation – methane content in the atmosphere here is not too high. There are many areas in the world where methane concentration in the air is much higher but no such phenomenon is observed.

On September 27, 2005, Catatumbo Lightning was declared a Natural Heritage of Zulia. It has been included also in the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage. Venezuelans note with regret that UNESCO experts seem not to realize that there can exist weather phenomena linked to certain locations.

Disruption of Catatumbo Lightning

In January 2010 happened unusual thing – Catatumbo Lightning disappeared. Lightning was not visible anymore and there was unusual darkness above Lake Maracaibo at the night. Closer studies revealed that the process of discharge continued, just the lightning was not visible anymore with the naked eye.

Before this Catatumbo Lightning vanished only for three weeks in 1906 after the tsunami caused by the catastrophic 8.8 magnitude earthquake.

Most likely cause for current disruption is the unusual drought in Venezuela.

Catatumbo Lightning restarted in April 2010, after more than 2 months long disruption.

Description and formation

Location

Maracaibo Lightning is observed in the area between 8°30′ and 9°45 north latitude and 71° and 73° west longitude, in Zulia state, Venezuela.

Here, to the southwest from Lake Maracaibo have located wast, swampy, nearly impassable plains. The 500 km long Catatumbo River flows through these plains – it is full of water and navigable along most of its length. This river brings lots of sediments and has developed a large delta in Lake Maracaibo. In fact, if the lake would not subside, this river alone would fill the whole lake.

Further away from the lake start mountains. Two high mountain ridges surround Lake Maracaibo plains from three sides – to the west is located up to 3,630 m high Serranía del Perijá. To the south and east are even higher mountains – up to 4,981 m high Cordillera de Mérida.

Although the northern part of Lake Maracaibo is densely populated and industrialized, remote parts of the Catatumbo basin still are inhabited almost exclusively by indigenous people. Only in the second half of the 20th century, they were "pacified" by Capuchin missionaries.

Description

Catatumbo Lightning is like a common thunderstorm.

Yes… almost common. Contrary to usual thunderstorms it always takes place in the same place and can be observed 140 – 160 nights per year, 10 hours long.

Thunder starts approximately one hour after dawn. It is very intense: there can be observed 20,000 flashes in one night. This resembles a giant strobe light. Single flashes of lightning are 100,000 – 400,000 amperes strong – like common average positive lightning.

Thunder takes place in giant storm clouds at the foothills of mountains. The Maracaibo plain itself often is free of clouds at the night. Boats can go in Lake Maracaibo at night and passengers can enjoy the beautiful spectacle of nature.

Thanks to this clear sky this lightning is visible very far away in the Caribbean – even on the 500 km distant island of Aruba. Thus the second name of this phenomenon is Maracaibo Lighthouse. Hardly any human-built lighthouse can beat its power!

Lightning often is orange and red. For the most part, it is not audible, only sometimes there is heard distant thunder.

Some researchers (and many journalists and tourist operators) consider that these peculiarities are caused by specific chemistry or other, even mysterious singularities, unique to Catatumbo Lightning.

In fact this is common lightning. The clear sky over Lake Maracaibo lets to see very far – and thunderstorm takes place some 50 – 100 km far from the lake. The sound of thunder is lost in such a distance, it is rarely audible more than 25 kilometers far. The orange and red color of lightning also is caused by the big distance – by dust particles and vapor in the atmosphere.

Far distance allows seeing mostly electrical discharges between the different parts of the storm cloud – due to this many consider that Catatumbo Lightning does not hit the ground. This is not true either – also in this respect, it does not differ from common thunderstorms.

Formation

Scientific investigations of Catatumbo Lightning continue up to this day and there appear new explanations for it. But most likely it has been explained already in 1911 by Melchor Bravo Centeno.

The key to this unique landmark most likely lies in the interaction of unique local topography, wind, and heat.

High mountains surround Maracaibo plain from three sides. Specific wind (low-level jet) blows from the only side which is free of mountains – from the northeast. The hot tropical sun has heated the lake and swamps during the day – wind accumulates the produced heat and moistness.

The disruption of Catatumbo Lightning in 2010 is an alarming message – something seems to be changing in the local climate. Most likely some part of the blame lies in the deforestation and development of agriculture around Lake Maracaibo.

To the southwest from the plains the wind meets high mountains. Electrically charged masses of moist and heated air here are forced to go upwards. Vapor condensates, clouds form, and starts the discharge of electricity – lightning.

It is estimated that Maracaibo Lightning produces approximately 10% of the tropospheric ozone of the world. Although it is located in the upper layers of the troposphere, most likely it does not help to build up the protective ozone layer of Earth which is located higher in the atmosphere – in the stratosphere.

References

1. Dan Robinson, Catatumbo lightning in Venezuela: Overview and Myths, Storm Highway. Accessed in the 21st August 2010.

Catatumbo Lightning is included in the following lists and articles: